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Bloat is any abnormal gas swelling, or increase in diameter of the abdominal area. As a symptom, the patient feels a full and tight abdomen, which may cause abdominal pain and is sometimes accompanied by increased stomach growling, or more seriously, the total lack of it.

Pains that are due to bloating will feel sharp and cause the stomach to cramp. These pains may occur anywhere in the body and can change locations quickly.They are so painful that they are sometimes mistaken for heart pains when they develop on the upper left side of the chest. Pains on the right side are often confused with problems in the appendix or the gallbladder.

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Alcoholism, also known as alcohol use disorder (AUD), is a broad term for any drinking of alcohol that results in mental or physical health problems. It was previously divided into two types: alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence. In a medical context, alcoholism is said to exist when two or more of the following conditions is present: a person drinks large amounts over a long time period, has difficulty cutting down, acquiring and drinking alcohol takes up a great deal of time, alcohol is strongly desired, usage results in not fulfilling responsibilities, usage results in social problems, usage results in health problems, usage results in risky situations, withdrawal occurs when stopping, and alcohol tolerance has occurred with use.Risky situations include drinking and driving or having unsafe sex among others.Alcohol use can affect all parts of the body but particularly affects the brain, heart, liver, pancreas, and immune system.This can result in mental illness, Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome, an irregular heart beat, liver failure, and an increase in the risk of cancer, among other diseases Drinking during pregnancy can cause damage to the baby resulting in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Generally women are more sensitive to alcohol's harmful physical and mental effects than men

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White blood cells (leukocytes) orchestrate the host response to pathogens. Leukocytes are divided into myeloid (eosinophils, monocytes, neutrophils, basophils) and lymphoid (B cells, T cells, and natural killer (NK) cells) elements. Monocytes and neutrophils mediate innate immune defenses and present antigens to lymphocytes, the principal effectors of the adaptive immune system. Eosinophils and basophils defend against parasitic pathogens, play important roles in inflammation, and mediate allergic reactions.Monocytes and neutrophils, as part of innate immunity, phagocytose bacteria and debris, eliminate virus-infected cells, and destroy parasites and fungi. Phagocytosis is assisted by serum complement proteins, which adhere to pathogens and promote chemotaxis and opsonization. Monocytes mature in tissue to become macrophages, where they, along with dendritic cells and B cells, serve as antigen presenting cells (APCs) to the adaptive immune system.B and T cells, as part of adaptive immunity, confer long-term protection against pathogens, especially extracellular bacterial infections. Adaptive immunity orchestrates both antibody-mediated humoral immunity and T-cell mediated cellular cytotoxicity. B cells secrete neutralizing antigen-specific antibodies (i.e. humoral) upon stimulation by the macrophages, dendritic cells, and T cells. In contrast, T cells and NK cells, upon stimulation, can directly kill aberrant cells (i.e. cell-mediated). These aberrant cells include those infected with viruses, bacteria, and fungi, tumorigenic cells, and transplanted tissue.


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ON THIS PAGE: You will find out more about body changes and other things that can signal a problem that may need medical care. To see other pages, use the menu.Children with a Wilms tumor may experience the following symptoms or signs. Sometimes, children with a Wilms tumor do not have any of these changes. Or, the cause of a symptom may be another medical condition that is not cancer.Usually, a Wilms tumor is found before it spreads to other parts of the body. A parent or relative may notice a large lump or feel a hard mass in the child’s belly or notice that the belly is much larger than usual. In some cases, a rapid change to a larger diaper size alerts parents to the presence of a tumor. A few children have abdominal pain. However, most of the time the tumor grows without causing pain, and the child feels and appears healthy.


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Most adults have 32 teeth, including 4 wisdom teeth that usually emerge between the ages of 17 and 21.

This final set of molars can play a useful part in the mouth for many people.

However, for others, if they don’t come through properly or don’t emerge at all, they may need to be removed.

Having wisdom teeth out is one of the most common dental procedures in the UK.


Wisdom Teeth


Wisdom teeth present potential problems when they are misaligned as they can position themselves horizontally, be angled toward or away from the second molars or be angled inward or outward. Poor alignment of wisdom teeth can crowd or damage adjacent teeth, the jawbone, and nerves. Wisdom teeth that lean toward the second molars make those teeth more vulnerable to decay by entrapping plaque and debris.


In addition, wisdom teeth can be entrapped completely within the soft tissue and/or the jawbone or only partially break through, or erupt, through the gum.


Teeth that remain partially or completely entrapped within the soft tissue or the jawbone are called impacted. Wisdom teeth that only partially erupt allow an opening for bacteria to enter around the tooth and cause an infection, which results in pain, swelling, jaw stiffness, and general illness. Partially erupted teeth are also more prone to tooth decay and gum disease because their hard-to-reach location and awkward positioning makes brushing and flossing difficult.

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In Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW) syndrome, an extra electrical pathway between your heart's upper and lower chambers causes a rapid heartbeat. The extra pathway is present at birth and fairly rare.The episodes of fast heartbeats usually aren't life-threatening, but serious heart problems can occur. Treatment can stop or prevent episodes of fast heartbeats. A catheter-based procedure (ablation) can permanently correct the heart rhythm problems.Most people with an extra electrical pathway experience no fast heartbeat. This condition, called Wolff-Parkinson-White pattern, is discovered only by chance during a heart exam. Although WPW pattern is often harmless, doctors might recommend further evaluation before children with WPW pattern participate in high-intensity sports.

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A wrist fracture is a medical term for a broken wrist. The wrist is made up of eight small bones which connect with the two long forearm bones called the radius and ulna. Although a broken wrist can happen in any of these 10 bones, by far the most common bone to break is the radius. This is called a distal radius fracture by hand surgeons (Figure 1).Some wrist fractures are stable. “Non-displaced” breaks, in which the bones do not move out of place initially, can be stable. Some “displaced” breaks (which need to be put back into the right place, called “reduction” or “setting”) also can be stable enough to treat in a cast or splint. Other fractures are unstable. In unstable fractures, even if the bones are put back into position and a cast is placed, the bone pieces tend to move or shift into a bad position before they solidly heal. This can make the wrist appear crooked.Some fractures are more severe than others. Fractures that break apart the smooth joint surface or fractures that shatter into many pieces (comminuted fractures) may make the bone unstable. These severe types of fractures often require surgery to restore and hold their alignment. An open fracture occurs when a fragment of bone breaks and is forced out through the skin. This can cause an increased risk of infection in the bone.

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Wrist pain is often caused by sprains or fractures from sudden injuries. But wrist pain can also result from long-term problems, such as repetitive stress, arthritis and carpal tunnel syndrome.Because so many factors can lead to wrist pain, diagnosing the exact cause can be difficult, but an accurate diagnosis is essential for proper treatment and healing.

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Shingles, also known as herpes zoster, is a viral disease characterized by a painful skin rash with blisters in a localized area.

Shingles is an infection caused by the varicella-zoster virus, which is the same virus that causes chickenpox. Even after the chickenpox infection is over, the virus may live in your nervous system for years before reactivating as shingles. Shingles may also be referred to as herpes zoster.


This type of viral infection is characterized by a red skin rash that can cause pain and burning. Shingles usually appears as a stripe of blisters on one side of the body, typically on the torso, neck, or face.


Most cases of shingles clear up within two to three weeks. Shingles rarely occurs more than once in the same person, but approximately 1 in 3 people in the United States will have shingles at some point in their life, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

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A dislocation is an injury to a joint — a place where two or more bones come together — in which the ends of your bones are forced from their normal positions. This painful injury temporarily deforms and immobilizes your joint.


Dislocation is most common in shoulders and fingers. Other sites include elbows, knees and hips. If you suspect a dislocation, seek prompt medical attention to return your bones to their proper positions.

When treated properly, most dislocations return to normal function after several weeks of rest and rehabilitation. However, some joints, such as your shoulder, may have an increased risk of repeat dislocation.

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Dissociative disorders are mental disorders that involve experiencing a disconnection and lack of continuity between thoughts, memories, surroundings, actions and identity. People with dissociative disorders escape reality in ways that are involuntary and unhealthy and cause problems with functioning in everyday life.


Dissociative disorders usually develop as a reaction to trauma and help keep difficult memories at bay. Symptoms — ranging from amnesia to alternate identities — depend in part on the type of dissociative disorder you have. Times of stress can temporarily worsen symptoms, making them more obvious.


Treatment for dissociative disorders may include talk therapy (psychotherapy) and medication. Although treating dissociative disorders can be difficult, many people learn new ways of coping and lead healthy, productive lives.

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A double uterus is a rare congenital abnormality. In a female fetus, the uterus starts out as two small tubes. As the fetus develops, the tubes normally join to create one larger, hollow organ — the uterus.


Sometimes, however, the tubes don't join completely. Instead, each one develops into a separate structure. A double uterus may have one opening (cervix) into one vagina, or each uterine cavity may have a cervix. In many cases, a thin wall of tissue runs down the length of the vagina, dividing it into two separate openings.


Women who have a double uterus often have successful pregnancies. But the condition can increase the risk of miscarriage or premature birth.

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The typical scenario for dry socket is the occurrence of throbbing pain about two to four days after the tooth is extracted. Dry socket pain is often accompanied by bad breath and a foul taste in the mouth. With this onset of pain, it is obvious that proper healing has been interrupted.


Dry socket is a condition in which there is inflammation of the jawbone (or alveolar bone) after a tooth extraction. It is also referred to as "alveolar osteitis" and is one of the many complications that can occur from a tooth extraction. The occurrence of dry socket is relatively rare, occurring in about 2% of tooth extractions. However, that percentage rises to at least 20% when it involves the removal of mandibular impacted third molars (lower wisdom teeth).

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Dust mite allergy is an allergic reaction to tiny bugs that commonly live in house dust. Signs of dust mite allergy include those common to hay fever, such as sneezing and runny nose. Many people with dust mite allergy also experience signs of asthma, such as wheezing and difficulty breathing.


Dust mites, close relatives of ticks and spiders, are too small to see without a microscope. Dust mites eat skin cells shed by people, and they thrive in warm, humid environments. In most homes, such items as bedding, upholstered furniture and carpeting provide an ideal environment for dust mites.


By taking steps to reduce the number of dust mites in your home, you may get control of dust mite allergy. Medications or other treatments are sometimes necessary to relieve symptoms and manage asthma.

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Dysarthria is a condition in which the muscles you use for speech are weak or you have difficulty controlling them. Dysarthria often is characterized by slurred or slow speech that can be difficult to understand.


Common causes of dysarthria include nervous system (neurological) disorders such as stroke, brain injury, brain tumors, and conditions that cause facial paralysis or tongue or throat muscle weakness. Certain medications also can cause dysarthria.


Dysarthria treatment is directed at treating the underlying cause of your condition when possible, which may improve your speech. You may have speech therapy to help improve speech. For dysarthria caused by prescription medications, changing or discontinuing the medications may help.

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Eating disorders are serious conditions related to persistent eating behaviors that negatively impact your health, your emotions and your ability to function in important areas of life. The most common eating disorders are anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and binge-eating disorder.


Most eating disorders involve focusing too much on your weight, body shape and food, leading to dangerous eating behaviors. These behaviors can significantly impact your body's ability to get adequate nutrition. Eating disorders can harm the heart, digestive system, bones, and teeth and mouth, and lead to other diseases.


Eating disorders often develop in the teen and young adult years, although they can develop at other ages. With treatment, you can return to healthier eating habits and sometimes reverse serious complications caused by the eating disorder.

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An ectopic pregnancy is an early pregnancy that occurs outside of the normal location (uterine lining) for a developing pregnancy. Most ectopic pregnancies occur in the Fallopian tubes. An ectopic pregnancy cannot progress normally and typically results in the death of the embryo or fetus.

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Ectropion (ek-TROH-pee-on) is a condition in which your eyelid turns outward. This leaves the inner eyelid surface exposed and prone to irritation.

Ectropion is more common in older adults, and it generally affects only the lower eyelid. In severe ectropion, the entire length of the eyelid is turned out. In less severe ectropion, only one segment of the eyelid sags away from the eye.

Artificial tears and lubricating ointments can help relieve symptoms of ectropion. But usually surgery is needed to fully correct the condition.

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 Central nervous system (CNS) embryonal tumors form in embryonic cells that remain in the brain after birth. CNS embryonal tumors tend to spread through the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) to other parts of the brain and spinal cord.

The tumors may be malignant (cancer) or benign (not cancer). Most CNS embryonal tumors in children are malignant. Malignant brain tumors are likely to grow quickly and spread into other parts of the brain. When a tumor grows into or presses on an area of the brain, it may stop that part of the brain from working the way it should. Benign brain tumors grow and press on nearby areas of the brain. They rarely spread to other parts of the brain. Both benign and malignant brain tumors can cause signs or symptoms and need treatment.

Although cancer is rare in children, brain tumors are the third most common type of childhood cancer, after leukemia and lymphoma. This summary is about the treatment of primary brain tumors (tumors that begin in the brain). The treatment of metastatic brain tumors, which begin in other parts of the body and spread to the brain, is not discussed in this summary. For information about the different types of brain and spinal cord tumors, see the PDQ summary on Childhood Brain and Spinal Cord Tumors Treatment Overview.

Brain tumors occur in both children and adults. Treatment for adults may be different from treatment for children. See the PDQ summary on Adult Central Nervous System Tumors Treatment for more information on the treatment of adults.

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Endocarditis generally occurs when bacteria, fungi or other germs from another part of your body, such as your mouth, spread through your bloodstream and attach to damaged areas in your heart. If it's not treated quickly, endocarditis can damage or destroy your heart valves and can lead to life-threatening complications. Treatments for endocarditis include antibiotics and, in certain cases, surgery.


Since there are many ways to develop endocarditis, your doctor might not be able to pinpoint the exact cause of your condition. However, people at greatest risk of endocarditis usually have damaged heart valves, artificial heart valves or other heart defects.

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Endometrial cancer is a type of cancer that begins in the uterus. The uterus is the hollow, pear-shaped pelvic organ in women where fetal development occurs.


Endometrial cancer begins in the layer of cells that form the lining (endometrium) of the uterus. Endometrial cancer is sometimes called uterine cancer. Other types of cancer can form in the uterus, including uterine sarcoma, but they are much less common than endometrial cancer.


Endometrial cancer is often detected at an early stage because it frequently produces abnormal vaginal bleeding, which prompts women to see their doctors. If endometrial cancer is discovered early, removing the uterus surgically often cures endometrial cancer.

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An enlarged heart (cardiomegaly) isn't a disease, but rather a sign of another condition.


The term "cardiomegaly" refers to an enlarged heart seen on any imaging test, including a chest X-ray. Other tests are then needed to diagnose the condition causing your enlarged heart.


You may develop an enlarged heart temporarily because of a stress on your body, such as pregnancy, or because of a medical condition, such as the weakening of the heart muscle, coronary artery disease, heart valve problems or abnormal heart rhythms.


Certain conditions may cause the heart muscle to thicken or one of the chambers of the heart to dilate, making the heart larger. Depending on the condition, an enlarged heart may be temporary or permanent.


An enlarged heart may be treatable by correcting the cause. Treatment for an enlarged heart can include medications, medical procedures or surgery.


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Entropion (en-TROH-pee-on) is a condition in which your eyelid turns inward so that your eyelashes and skin rub against the eye surface. This causes irritation and discomfort.


When you have entropion, your eyelid may be turned in all the time or only when you blink hard or squeeze your eyelids shut. Entropion is more common in older adults, and it generally affects only the lower eyelid.


Artificial tears and lubricating ointments can help relieve symptoms of entropion. But usually surgery is needed to fully correct the condition. Left untreated, entropion can cause damage to the transparent covering in the front part of your eye (cornea), eye infections and vision loss.

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In eosinophilic esophagitis (e-o-sin-o-FILL-ik uh-sof-uh-JIE-tis), a type of white blood cell (eosinophil) builds up in the lining of the tube that connects your mouth to your stomach (esophagus). This buildup, which is a reaction to foods, allergens or acid reflux, can inflame or injure the esophageal tissue. Damaged esophageal tissue can lead to difficulty swallowing or cause food to get stuck when you swallow.


Eosinophilic esophagitis is a chronic immune system disease. It has been identified only in the past two decades, but is now considered a major cause of digestive system (gastrointestinal) illness. Research is ongoing and will likely lead to revisions in the diagnosis and treatment of eosinophilic esophagitis.

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Epidermoid (ep-ih-DUR-moid) cysts are noncancerous small bumps beneath the skin. They can appear anywhere on the skin, but are most common on the face, neck and trunk.


Epidermoid cysts are slow growing and often painless, so they rarely cause problems or need treatment. You might choose to have a cyst removed by a doctor if its appearance bothers you or if it's painful, ruptured or infected.


Many people refer to epidermoid cysts as sebaceous cysts, but they're different. True sebaceous cysts are less common. They arise from the glands that secrete oily matter that lubricates hair and skin (sebaceous glands).

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Epididymitis (ep-ih-did-uh-MY-tis) is an inflammation of the coiled tube (epididymis) at the back of the testicle that stores and carries sperm. Males of any age can get epididymitis.


Epididymitis is most often caused by a bacterial infection, including sexually transmitted infections (STIs), such as gonorrhea or chlamydia. Sometimes, a testicle also becomes inflamed — a condition called epididymo-orchitis.

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Congestive Heart Failure (Heart Failure) – Pipeline Review, H2 2017, provides an overview of the Congestive Heart Failure (Heart Failure) (Cardiovascular) pipeline landscape.

Heart failure is also known as congestive heart failure (CHF). CHF is a condition in which the heart is no longer able to pump out enough oxygen-rich blood. Symptoms include cough, fatigue, weakness, faintness, loss of appetite, swollen (enlarged) liver or abdomen, swollen feet and ankles and weight gain. The predisposing factors include high blood pressure, diabetes, sleep apnea, alcohol use and irregular heartbeats. Treatment includes surgery, vasodilator, beta blockers and diuretics.

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Epiglottitis is a potentially life-threatening condition that occurs when the epiglottis — a small cartilage "lid" that covers your windpipe — swells, blocking the flow of air into your lungs.


A number of factors can cause the epiglottis to swell — burns from hot liquids, direct injury to your throat and various infections. The most common cause of epiglottitis in children in the past was infection with Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib), the same bacterium that causes pneumonia, meningitis and infections in the bloodstream. Epiglottitis can occur at any age.


Routine Hib vaccination for infants has made epiglottitis rare, but epiglottitis remains a concern. If you suspect that you or someone in your family has epiglottitis, seek emergency help immediately. Prompt treatment can prevent life-threatening complications.

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Essential tremor is a nervous system (neurological) disorder that causes involuntary and rhythmic shaking. It can affect almost any part of your body, but the trembling occurs most often in your hands — especially when you do simple tasks, such as drinking from a glass or tying shoelaces.


It's usually not a dangerous condition, but essential tremor typically worsens over time and can be severe in some people. Other conditions don't cause essential tremor, although it's sometimes confused with Parkinson's disease.

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Esthesioneuroblastoma (es-THEE-zee-o-NOO-row-blas-TOE-muh) is a rare type of cancer that begins in the upper portion of the nasal cavity.


The area where esthesioneuroblastoma begins is separated from the brain by a bone that contains tiny holes that allow the nerves that control smell (olfactory nerves) to pass through. Esthesioneuroblastoma is also called olfactory neuroblastoma.


Esthesioneuroblastoma, which can occur at any age in adults, generally begins as a tumor in the nasal cavity and may grow or extend into the sinus, eyes and brain. People with esthesioneuroblastoma can lose their sense of smell, have frequent nosebleeds and experience difficulty breathing through their nostrils as the tumor grows.


Esthesioneuroblastoma can also spread to the lymph nodes in the neck and the parotid glands. In advanced cases, esthesioneuroblastoma can spread to other parts of the brain and other parts of the body, such as the lungs, liver and bones.


Esthesioneuroblastoma treatment usually includes surgery. Often, radiation and chemotherapy are recommended, as well.

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Eye floaters appear as small spots that drift through your field of vision. They may stand out when you look at something bright, like white paper or a blue sky. They might annoy you, but they shouldn’t interfere with your sight.


If you have a large floater, it can cast a slight shadow over your vision. But this tends to happen only in certain types of light.


You can learn to live with floaters and ignore them. You may notice them less as time passes. Only rarely do they get bad enough to require treatment.

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The term eye strain is frequently used by people to describe a group of vague symptoms that are related to use of the eyes. Eye strain is a symptom, not an eye disease. Eye strain occurs when your eyes get tired from intense use, such as driving a car for extended periods, reading, or working at the computer. If you have any eye discomfort caused by looking at something for a long time, you can call it eye strain.


Although eye strain can be annoying, it usually is not serious and goes away once you rest your eyes. In some cases, signs and symptoms of eye strain are a sign of an underlying eye condition that needs treatment. Although you may not be able to change the nature of your job or all the factors that can cause eye strain, you can take steps to reduce eye strain.

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Factitious disorder is a serious mental disorder in which someone deceives others by appearing sick, by purposely getting sick or by self-injury. Factitious disorder also can happen when family members or caregivers falsely present others, such as children, as being ill, injured or impaired.


Factitious disorder symptoms can range from mild (slight exaggeration of symptoms) to severe (previously called Munchausen syndrome). The person may make up symptoms or even tamper with medical tests to convince others that treatment, such as high-risk surgery, is needed.


Factitious disorder is not the same as inventing medical problems for practical benefit, such as getting out of work or winning a lawsuit. Although people with factitious disorder know they are causing their symptoms or illnesses, they may not understand the reasons for their behaviors or recognize themselves as having a problem.


Factitious disorder is challenging to identify and hard to treat. However, medical and psychiatric help are critical for preventing serious injury and even death caused by the self-harm typical of this disorder.

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Farsightedness (hyperopia) is a common vision condition in which you can see distant objects clearly, but objects nearby may be blurry.


The degree of your farsightedness influences your focusing ability. People with severe farsightedness may see clearly only objects a great distance away, while those with mild farsightedness may be able to clearly see objects that are closer.


Farsightedness usually is present at birth and tends to run in families. You can easily correct this condition with eyeglasses or contact lenses. Another treatment option is surgery.

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Fecal incontinence is the inability to control bowel movements, causing stool (feces) to leak unexpectedly from the rectum. Also called bowel incontinence, fecal incontinence ranges from an occasional leakage of stool while passing gas to a complete loss of bowel control.


Common causes of fecal incontinence include diarrhea, constipation, and muscle or nerve damage. The muscle or nerve damage may be associated with aging or with giving birth.


Whatever the cause, fecal incontinence can be embarrassing. But don't shy away from talking to your doctor. Treatments are available that can improve fecal incontinence and your quality of life.

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Infertility is defined as trying to get pregnant (with frequent intercourse) for at least a year with no success. Female infertility, male infertility or a combination of the two affects millions of couples in the United States. An estimated 10 to 18 percent of couples have trouble getting pregnant or having a successful delivery.


Infertility results from female factors about one-third of the time and male factors about one-third of the time. The cause is either unknown or a combination of male and female factors in the remaining cases.


Female infertility causes can be difficult to diagnose. There are many available treatments, which will depend on the cause of infertility. Many infertile couples will go on to conceive a child without treatment. After trying to get pregnant for two years, about 95 percent of couples successfully conceive.

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A sexual problem, or sexual dysfunction, refers to a problem during any phase of the sexual response cycle that prevents the individual or couple from experiencing satisfaction from the sexual activity. The sexual response cycle has four phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.


While research suggests that sexual dysfunction is common (43% of women and 31% of men report some degree of difficulty), it is a topic that many people are hesitant or embarrassed to discuss. Fortunately, most cases of sexual dysfunction are treatable, so it is important to share your concerns with your partner and doctor.

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The term "fetal macrosomia" is used to describe a newborn who's significantly larger than average.


A baby diagnosed with fetal macrosomia has a birth weight of more than 8 pounds, 13 ounces (4,000 grams), regardless of his or her gestational age. About 9 percent of babies born worldwide weigh more than 8 pounds, 13 ounces.


However, the risks associated with fetal macrosomia increase greatly when birth weight is more than 9 pounds 15 ounces (4,500 grams).


Fetal macrosomia may complicate vaginal delivery and could put the baby at risk of injury during birth. Fetal macrosomia also puts the baby at increased risk of health problems after birth.

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Fibrocystic breasts are composed of tissue that feels lumpy or rope-like in texture. Doctors call this nodular or glandular breast tissue.


It's not at all uncommon to have fibrocystic breasts. More than half of women experience fibrocystic breast changes at some point in their lives. In fact, medical professionals have stopped using the term "fibrocystic breast disease" and now simply refer to "fibrocystic breasts" or "fibrocystic breast changes" because having fibrocystic breasts isn't really a disease. Breast changes categorized as fibrocystic are considered normal.


Although many women with fibrocystic breasts don't have symptoms, some women experience breast pain, tenderness and lumpiness — especially in the upper, outer area of the breasts. Breast symptoms tend to be most bothersome just before menstruation. Simple self-care measures can usually relieve discomfort associated with fibrocystic breasts.

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You have flatfeet when the arches on the inside of your feet are flattened, allowing the entire soles of your feet to touch the floor when you stand up.


A common and usually painless condition, flatfeet can occur when the arches don't develop during childhood. In other cases, flatfeet develop after an injury or from the simple wear-and-tear stresses of age.


Flatfeet can sometimes contribute to problems in your ankles and knees because the condition can alter the alignment of your legs. If you aren't having pain, no treatment is usually necessary for flatfeet.

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Folliculitis is an inflammatory condition affecting hair follicles. It appears as a small red tender bump occasionally surmounted with dot of pus surrounding a hair. Older lesions that have lost the pus appear as red bumps surrounding the opening of the follicle absent the hair. One to hundreds of follicles can be affected anywhere that hair is present. Actually, acne vulgaris, the facial rash that teenagers develop, is a type of folliculitis.


Depending on the cause and severity of folliculitis, it may require no treatment and resolve spontaneously, or it may require treatment with powerful antibiotics or other drugs.

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Foot drop, sometimes called "drop foot," is the inability to lift the front part of the foot. This causes the toes to drag along the ground while walking.


To avoid dragging the toes, people with foot drop may lift their knee higher than normal. Or they may swing their leg in a wide arc.


Foot drop can happen to one foot or both feet at the same time. It can strike at any age.


In general, foot drop stems from weakness or paralysis of the muscles that lift the foot. It can have many different causes. Treatments for foot drop vary according to the cause.



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Frostbite occurs when the skin is exposed to extreme or prolonged cold. The skin freezes, as do tissues beneath the surface of the skin. In extreme cases, muscle, nerves, and blood vessels may also freeze.


Skin may freeze within minutes when exposed to temperatures that fall below freezing. Even if temperatures are above freezing, the skin is likely to freeze if it’s wet or exposed to severe wind chills.


Frostbite also occurs when your skin directly contacts very cold surfaces. This type of exposure may immediately freeze the skin that touches the frozen surface.

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Galactorrhea (guh-lack-toe-REE-uh) is a milky nipple discharge unrelated to the normal milk production of breast-feeding. Galactorrhea itself isn't a disease, but it could be a sign of an underlying problem. It usually occurs in women, even those who have never had children or after menopause. But galactorrhea can happen in men and even in infants.


Excessive breast stimulation, medication side effects or disorders of the pituitary gland all may contribute to galactorrhea. Often, galactorrhea results from increased levels of prolactin, the hormone that stimulates milk production.

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Ganglion cysts are noncancerous lumps that most commonly develop along the tendons or joints of your wrists or hands. They also may occur in the ankles and feet. Ganglion cysts are typically round or oval and are filled with a jellylike fluid.


Small ganglion cysts can be pea-sized, while larger ones can be around an inch (2.5 centimeters) in diameter. Ganglion cysts can be painful if they press on a nearby nerve. Their location can sometimes interfere with joint movement.


If your ganglion cyst is causing you problems, your doctor may suggest trying to drain the cyst with a needle. Removing the cyst surgically also is an option. But if you have no symptoms, no treatment is necessary. In many cases, the cysts go away on their own.

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Gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding is a symptom of a disorder in your digestive tract. The blood often appears in stool or vomit but isn't always visible, though it may cause the stool to look black or tarry. The level of bleeding can range from mild to severe and life-threatening.


Bleeding in the stomach or colon can usually be easily identified, but finding the cause of bleeding that occurs in the small intestine can be difficult. But sophisticated imaging technology can usually locate the problem, and minimally invasive procedures often can fix it.

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Foot corns are hardened layers of skin that develop from your skin’s response to friction and pressure. You may have foot corns if you experience the following symptoms on the tips and the sides of your toes:

rough, tough, yellowing patch of lumpy or bumpy skin

skin that’s sensitive to touch

pain when wearing shoes

Foot corns can be safely treated, and you can even prevent future ones. Keep reading to learn tips on how you can manage existing corns and minimize your chances of developing new ones.

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Gastroparesis means weakness of the muscles of the stomach. Gastroparesis results in poor grinding of food in the stomach into small particles and slow emptying of food from the stomach into the small intestine.


The stomach is a hollow organ composed primarily of muscle. Solid food that has been swallowed is stored in the stomach while it is ground into tiny pieces by the constant churning generated by rhythmic contractions of the stomach's muscles. Smaller particles are digested better in the small intestine than larger particles, and only food that has been ground into small particles is emptied from the stomach and well digested. Liquid food does not require grinding.


The ground solid and liquid food is emptied from the stomach into the small intestine slowly in a metered fashion. The metering process allows the emptied food to be well-mixed with the digestive juices of the small intestine, pancreas, and liver (bile) and to be absorbed well from the intestine. The metering process by which solid and liquid foods are emptied from the stomach is a result of a combination of relaxation of the muscle in parts of the stomach designed to accommodate (store) food, and the pressure generated by the muscle in other parts of the stomach that pushes the food into the small intestine. (Thus, the stomach can store and empty food at the same time.) The metering also is controlled by the opening and closing of the pylorus, the muscular opening of the stomach into the small intestine.


When the contractions of the stomach's muscles are weakened, food is not thoroughly ground and does not empty into the intestine normally. Since the muscular actions whereby solid food and liquid food are emptied from the stomach are slightly different, the emptying of solids and liquids follows different time courses, and there may be slow emptying of solid food (most common), solid and liquid food (less common), or liquid food alone (least common).

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Genital herpes is a common sexually transmitted infection caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV). Sexual contact is the primary way that the virus spreads. After the initial infection, the virus lies dormant in your body and can reactivate several times a year.


Genital herpes can cause pain, itching and sores in your genital area. But you may have no signs or symptoms of genital herpes. If infected, you can be contagious even if you have no visible sores.


There's no cure for genital herpes, but medications can ease symptoms and reduce the risk of infecting others. Condoms also can help prevent the spread of a genital herpes infection.

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Geographic tongue is the name of a condition that gets its name from its map-like appearance on the upper surface and sides of the tongue. It may occur in other areas of your mouth, as well.


You'll be relieved to know that geographic tongue is a harmless, benign condition that isn't linked to any infection or cancer. Two other names for geographic tongue are benign migratory glossitis and erythema migrans.


Affecting about 1% to 3% of people, geographic tongue can show up at any age. However, it tends to affect middle-aged or older adults more often. It appears to be more common in women than in men.

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Germ cell tumors are growths that form from reproductive cells. Tumors may be cancerous or noncancerous. Most germ cell tumors that are cancerous occur as cancer of the testicles (testicular cancer) or cancer of the ovaries (ovarian cancer).


Some germ cell tumors occur in other areas of the body, such as the abdomen, brain and chest, though it's not clear why. Germ cell tumors that occur in places other than the testicles and ovaries (extragonadal germ cell tumors) are very rare.


Germ cell tumors tend to respond to treatment and many can be cured, even when diagnosed at a late stage.

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Glioblastoma is an aggressive type of cancer that can occur in the brain or spinal cord. Glioblastoma forms from cells called astrocytes that support nerve cells.


Glioblastoma can occur at any age, but tends to occur more often in older adults. It can cause worsening headaches, nausea, vomiting and seizures.


Glioblastoma, also known as glioblastoma multiforme, can be very difficult to treat and a cure is often not possible. Treatments may slow progression of the cancer and reduce signs and symptoms.

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Glomerulonephritis (gloe-mer-u-low-nuh-FRY-tis) is inflammation of the tiny filters in your kidneys (glomeruli). Glomeruli remove excess fluid, electrolytes and waste from your bloodstream and pass them into your urine. Glomerulonephritis can come on suddenly (acute) or gradually (chronic).


Glomerulonephritis occurs on its own or as part of another disease, such as lupus or diabetes. Severe or prolonged inflammation associated with glomerulonephritis can damage your kidneys. Treatment depends on the type of glomerulonephritis you have.

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Coronary artery disease (CAD), also known as ischemic heart disease (IHD),[13] is a group of diseases that includes: stable angina, unstable angina, myocardial infarction, and sudden cardiac death.[14] It is within the group of cardiovascular diseases of which it is the most common type

Signs and symptoms[edit]

Chest pain that occurs regularly with activity, after eating, or at other predictable times is termed stable angina and is associated with narrowings of the arteries of the heart.


Angina that changes in intensity, character or frequency is termed unstable. Unstable angina may precede myocardial infarction. In adults who go to the emergency department with an unclear cause of pain, about 30% have pain due to coronary artery disease

How Does Coronary Artery Disease Develop?


From a young age, plaque can start to go into your blood vessel walls. As you get older, the plaque builds up. 

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Greenstick fractures occur when the force applied to a bone results in bending of the bone such that the structural integrity of the convex surface is overcome. The fact that the integrity of the cortex has been overcome results in fracture of the convex surface. However, the bending force applied does not break the bone completely and the concave surface of the bent bone remains intact.


This can occur following an angulated longitudinal force applied down the bone (e.g. an indirect trauma following a fall on an outstretched arm), or after a force applied perpendicular to the bone (e.g. a direct blow).


This fracture is very different, and much less common, than the torus fracture that results in buckling of the cortex on the concave side of the bend and an intact concave surface.

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The hamstrings are the tendons that attach the large muscles at the back of the thigh to bone. The hamstring muscles are the large muscles that pull on these tendons. It has become common in layman's terminology (and by some medical personnel) to refer to the long muscles at the back of the thigh as the "hamstrings" or "hamstring muscles." Academic anatomists refer to them as the posterior thigh muscles, and more specifically as the semimembranosus, the semitendinosus, and the biceps femoris muscles. These muscles span the thigh, crossing both the hip and the knee. They originate or begin at just below the buttocks, arising from the bone on which we sit (the ischium). They connect by means of their tendons onto the upper parts of the lower leg bones (the tibia and the fibula).


The origin of the word hamstring comes from the old English hamm, meaning thigh. String refers to the characteristic appearance and feel of the tendons just above the back of the knee. Although the tendons are sometimes involved in injuries, this article will refer to the "hamstrings" as the large muscle group at the back of the thigh because the most frequent problems involve this muscle group.

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Heart rhythm problems (heart arrhythmias) occur when the electrical impulses that coordinate your heartbeats don't work properly, causing your heart to beat too fast, too slow or irregularly.


Heart arrhythmias (uh-RITH-me-uhs) may feel like a fluttering or racing heart and may be harmless. However, some heart arrhythmias may cause bothersome — sometimes even life-threatening — signs and symptoms.


Heart arrhythmia treatment can often control or eliminate fast, slow or irregular heartbeats. In addition, because troublesome heart arrhythmias are often made worse — or are even caused — by a weak or damaged heart, you may be able to reduce your arrhythmia risk by adopting a heart-healthy lifestyle.

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Heat exhaustion is a condition whose symptoms may include heavy sweating and a rapid pulse, a result of your body overheating. It's one of three heat-related syndromes, with heat cramps being the mildest and heatstroke being the most severe.


Causes of heat exhaustion include exposure to high temperatures, particularly when combined with high humidity, and strenuous physical activity. Without prompt treatment, heat exhaustion can lead to heatstroke, a life-threatening condition. Fortunately, heat exhaustion is preventable.

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Many different types of skin rashes exist. They can be concerning, uncomfortable, or downright painful. One of the most common types of rash is heat rash, or miliaria.


Heat rash is a skin condition that often affects children and adults in hot, humid weather conditions. You can develop heat rash when your pores become blocked and sweat can’t escape.


The cause of heat rash is often friction on the surface of the skin. Adults usually develop heat rash in the parts of their bodies that rub together, such as between the inner thighs or under the arms. Babies often develop heat rash on their necks, but it can also develop in skin folds such as the armpits, elbows, and thighs.

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Hepatitis A is a virus, or infection, that causes liver disease and inflammation of the liver. Viruses can cause sickness. For example, the flu is caused by a virus. People can pass viruses to each other.


Inflammation is swelling that occurs when tissues of the body become injured or infected. Inflammation can cause organs to not work properly.

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A herniated disk refers to a problem with one of the rubbery cushions (disks) between the individual bones (vertebrae) that stack up to make your spine.


A spinal disk is a little like a jelly donut, with a softer center encased within a tougher exterior. Sometimes called a slipped disk or a ruptured disk, a herniated disk occurs when some of the softer "jelly" pushes out through a tear in the tougher exterior.


A herniated disk can irritate nearby nerves and result in pain, numbness or weakness in an arm or leg. On the other hand, many people experience no symptoms from a herniated disk. Most people who have a herniated disk don't need surgery to correct the problem.

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Hidradenitis suppurativa (hi-drad-uh-NIE-tis sup-yoo-ruh-TIE-vuh) is rare, long-term skin condition that features small, painful lumps under the skin. They typically develop where the skin rubs together, such as the armpits, the groin, between the buttocks and under the breasts. The lumps may break open and smell or cause tunnels under the skin.


Hidradenitis suppurativa tends to start after puberty. It can persist for many years and worsen over time, with serious effects on your daily life and emotional well-being. Early diagnosis and treatment can help manage the symptoms, keep new lumps from forming and prevent complications, such as scar

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A hip fracture is a serious injury, with complications that can be life-threatening. The risk of hip fracture rises with age.


Older people are at a higher risk of hip fracture because bones tend to weaken with age (osteoporosis). Multiple medications, poor vision and balance problems also make older people more likely to trip and fall — one of the most common causes of hip fracture.


A hip fracture almost always requires surgical repair or replacement, followed by months of physical therapy. Taking steps to maintain bone density and avoid falls can help prevent hip fracture.

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Your hip is the joint where your thigh bone meets your pelvis. It is called a ball-and-socket joint, because the ball-like top of your thigh bone fits into a cup-like area within your pelvis, much like a baseball fits into a glove.


Normally, the ball glides smoothly within the socket, but a problem with the ball or socket rim can interfere with smooth motion. This problem can cause hip impingement or femoro acetabular impingement (FAI). It is believed to be a major cause of early osteoarthritis of the hip, particularly in those under age 40.

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Your hip is the joint where your thigh bone meets your pelvis. It is called a ball-and-socket joint, because the ball-like top of your thigh bone fits into a cup-like area within your pelvis, much like a baseball fits into a glove.


Hip


Normally, the ball glides smoothly within the socket, but a problem with the ball or socket rim can interfere with smooth motion. This problem can cause hip impingement or femoro acetabular impingement (FAI). It is believed to be a major cause of early osteoarthritis of the hip, particularly in those under age 40.

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Hirsutism (HUR-soot-iz-um) is a condition of unwanted, male-pattern hair growth in women. Hirsutism results in excessive amounts of dark, course hair on body areas where men typically grow hair — face, chest and back.


The amount of body hair you have is largely determined by your genetic makeup. There's a wide range of normal hair distribution, thickness and color due to differences in heredity. However, hirsutism is a medical condition that can arise from excess male hormones called androgens, primarily testosterone. It can also be due to a family trait.

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Histoplasmosis is a type of lung infection. It is caused by inhaling Histoplasma capsulatum fungal spores. These spores are found in soil and in the droppings of bats and birds. This fungus mainly grows in the central, southeastern, and mid-Atlantic states.


Most cases of histoplasmosis don’t require treatment. However, people with weaker immune systems may experience serious problems. The disease may progress and spread to other areas of the body. Skin lesions have been reported in 10 to 15 percent of cases of histoplasmosis that has spread throughout the body.

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HPV infection commonly causes skin or mucous membrane growths (warts). Certain types of HPV infection cause cervical cancers. More than 100 varieties of human papillomavirus (HPV) exist.


Different types of HPV infection cause warts on different parts of your body. For example, some types of HPV infection cause plantar warts on the feet, while others cause warts that mostly appear on the face or neck.


Most HPV infections don't lead to cancer. But some types of genital HPV can cause cancer of the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina (cervix). Other types of cancers, including cancers of the anus, penis, vagina, vulva and back of the throat (oropharyngeal), have been linked to HPV infection.


Vaccines can help protect against the strains of genital HPV most likely to cause genital warts or cervical cancer.

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Hunter syndrome is a very rare, inherited genetic disorder caused by a missing or malfunctioning enzyme. Because the body doesn't have enough of the enzyme to break down certain complex molecules, the molecules build up in harmful amounts.


In Hunter syndrome, the buildup of massive amounts of these harmful substances eventually causes permanent, progressive damage affecting appearance, mental development, organ function and physical abilities.


Hunter syndrome appears in children as young as 18 months. It mainly occurs in boys, although very rarely it has been observed in girls.


There's no cure for Hunter syndrome. Treatment of Hunter syndrome involves management of symptoms and complications.

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Huntington's disease (HD) is a neurological condition. It is an inherited disease that happens due to faulty genes. Toxic proteins collect in the brain and cause damage, leading to neurological symptoms.


As parts of the brain deteriorate, this affects movement, behavior, and cognition. It becomes harder to walk, think, reason, swallow, and talk. Eventually, the person will need full-time care. The complications are usually fatal.


There is currently no cure, but treatment can help with symptoms.

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High blood sugar (hyperglycemia) affects people who have diabetes. Several factors can contribute to hyperglycemia in people with diabetes, including food and physical activity choices, illness, nondiabetes medications, or skipping or not taking enough glucose-lowering medication.


It's important to treat hyperglycemia, because if left untreated, hyperglycemia can become severe and lead to serious complications requiring emergency care, such as a diabetic coma. In the long term, persistent hyperglycemia, even if not severe, can lead to complications affecting your eyes, kidneys, nerves and heart.

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Hyperparathyroidism is an excess of parathyroid hormone in the bloodstream due to overactivity of one or more of the body's four parathyroid glands. These glands are about the size of a grain of rice and are located in your neck.


The parathyroid glands produce parathyroid hormone, which helps maintain an appropriate balance of calcium in the bloodstream and in tissues that depend on calcium for proper functioning.


Two types of hyperparathyroidism exist. In primary hyperparathyroidism, an enlargement of one or more of the parathyroid glands causes overproduction of the hormone, resulting in high levels of calcium in the blood (hypercalcemia), which can cause a variety of health problems. Surgery is the most common treatment for primary hyperparathyroidism.


Secondary hyperparathyroidism occurs as a result of another disease that initially causes low levels of calcium in the body and over time, increased parathyroid hormone levels occur.

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Hyponatremia is a condition that occurs when the level of sodium in your blood is abnormally low. Sodium is an electrolyte, and it helps regulate the amount of water that's in and around your cells.


In hyponatremia, one or more factors — ranging from an underlying medical condition to drinking too much water during endurance sports — causes the sodium in your body to become diluted. When this happens, your body's water levels rise, and your cells begin to swell. This swelling can cause many health problems, from mild to life-threatening.


Hyponatremia treatment is aimed at resolving the underlying condition. Depending on the cause of hyponatremia, you may simply need to cut back on how much you drink. In other cases of hyponatremia, you may need intravenous fluids and medications.

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Hypoparathyroidism is an uncommon condition in which your body secretes abnormally low levels of parathyroid hormone (PTH). PTH is key to regulating and maintaining a balance of your body's levels of two minerals — calcium and phosphorus.


The low production of PTH in hypoparathyroidism leads to abnormally low calcium levels in your blood and bones and to an increase of phosphorus in your blood.


Supplements to normalize your calcium and phosphorus levels treat the condition. Depending on the cause of your hypoparathyroidism, you'll likely need to take supplements for life.

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Hypopituitarism is a rare disorder in which your pituitary gland either fails to produce one or more of its hormones or doesn't produce enough of them.


The pituitary gland is a small bean-shaped gland situated at the base of your brain, behind your nose and between your ears. Despite its size, this gland secretes hormones that influence nearly every part of your body.


In hypopituitarism, you have a short supply of one or more of these pituitary hormones. This deficiency can affect any number of your body's routine functions, such as growth, blood pressure and reproduction.


You'll likely need medications for the rest of your life to treat hypopituitarism, but your symptoms can be controlled.


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Hypothermia is defined as a body temperature (core, or internal body temperature) of less than about 95 F (35 C). Usually, hypothermia occurs when the body's temperature regulation is overwhelmed by a cold environment. However, in the medical and lay literature there are essentially two major classifications, accidental hypothermia and intentional hypothermia.


Accidental hypothermia usually occurs from an exposure to cold that results in lowering the body temperature.


Intentional hypothermia is body temperature lowering induced usually for a medical procedure.


This article will focus on accidental hypothermia. Hypothermia is a medical emergency that, when quickly and appropriately treated, people can recover with little or no consequences.


Body temperature, when discussing hypothermia, is usually termed "core" temperature. This temperature is the temperature measured inside the body. It's a measurement that is most accurately done by a rectal thermometer, a rectal probe thermometer that has a constant temperature readout or by a bladder or esophageal temperature device. Temperatures taken by other methods may not adequately measure core temperature.

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Ichthyosis (ick-thee-OH-sis) is a group of skin diseases that causes extremely dry, thick, and scaly skin. The skin often looks like it has fish scales.


There are more than 20 different types of ichthyosis. The most common type is ichthyosis vulgaris (vul-GAR-ris). About 95% of people who develop ichthyosis get this type.


The other types are rare and include harlequin ichthyosis, lamellar type, and x-linked ichthyosis.

Of all the types, ichthyosis vulgaris is the mildest. It often begins in childhood.

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Impetigo (im-puh-TIE-go) is a common and highly contagious skin infection that mainly affects infants and children. Impetigo usually appears as red sores on the face, especially around a child's nose and mouth, and on hands and feet. The sores burst and develop honey-colored crusts.


Treatment with antibiotics is generally recommended to help prevent the spread of impetigo to others. It's important to keep your child home from school or day care until he or she is no longer contagious — usually 24 hours after you begin antibiotic treatment.

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An incompetent cervix, also called a cervical insufficiency, is a condition that occurs when weak cervical tissue causes or contributes to premature birth or the loss of an otherwise healthy pregnancy.


Before pregnancy, your cervix — the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina — is normally closed and rigid. As pregnancy progresses and you prepare to give birth, the cervix gradually softens, decreases in length (effaces) and opens (dilates). If you have an incompetent cervix, your cervix might begin to open too soon — causing you to give birth too early.


An incompetent cervix can be difficult to diagnose and, as a result, treat. If your cervix begins to open early, your health care provider might recommend preventive medication during pregnancy, frequent ultrasounds or a procedure that closes the cervix with strong sutures (cervical cerclage).

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Jaundice is particularly common in premature babies - boys more often than girls. It usually appears within the baby's first week of life.


In an otherwise healthy baby born at full term, infant jaundice is rarely a cause for alarm; it tends to go away on its own. However, if treatment is necessary, infants tend to respond to non-invasive therapy.


In rare cases, untreated infant jaundice may lead to brain damage and even death.

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Infant reflux occurs when food backs up (refluxes) from a baby's stomach, causing the baby to spit up. Sometimes called gastroesophageal reflux (GER), the condition is rarely serious and becomes less common as a baby gets older. It's unusual for infant reflux to continue after age 18 months.


Reflux occurs in healthy infants multiple times a day. As long as your baby is healthy, content and growing well, the reflux is not a cause for concern.


Rarely, infant reflux can be a sign of a medical problem, such as an allergy, a blockage in the digestive system or gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).

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Infectious diseases kill more people worldwide than any other single cause. Infectious diseases are caused by germs. Germs are tiny living things that are found everywhere - in air, soil and water. You can get infected by touching, eating, drinking or breathing something that contains a germ. Germs can also spread through animal and insect bites, kissing and sexual contact. Vaccines, proper hand washing and medicines can help prevent infections.

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Ingrown toenails occur when the edges or corners of your nails grow into the skin next to the nail. Your big toe is most likely to get an ingrown toenail.


You can treat ingrown toenails at home. However, they can cause complications that might require medical treatment. Your risk of complications is higher if you have diabetes or other conditions that cause poo

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Interstitial (in-tur-STISH-ul) lung disease describes a large group of disorders, most of which cause progressive scarring of lung tissue. The scarring associated with interstitial lung disease eventually affects your ability to breathe and get enough oxygen into your bloodstream.


Interstitial lung disease can be caused by long-term exposure to hazardous materials, such as asbestos. Some types of autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, also can cause interstitial lung disease. In some cases, however, the causes remain unknown.


Once lung scarring occurs, it's generally irreversible. Medications may slow the damage of interstitial lung disease, but many people never regain full use of their lungs. Lung transplant is an option for some people who have interstitial lung disease.

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Intestinal ischemia (is-KEE-me-uh) describes a variety of conditions that occur when blood flow to your intestines decreases due to a blockage, usually in an artery. Intestinal ischemia can affect your small intestine, your large intestine (colon) or both.


Intestinal ischemia is a serious condition that can cause pain and make it difficult for your intestines to work. In severe cases, loss of blood flow to the intestines can damage intestinal tissue and lead to death.


Treatments are available for intestinal ischemia. To improve the chances of recovery, it's crucial to recognize the early symptoms and get medical help right away.

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Creatinine is a chemical waste molecule that is generated from muscle metabolism.

Creatinine is produced from creatine, a molecule of major importance for energy production in muscles.

Approximately 2% of the body's creatine is converted to creatinine every day.

Creatinine is transported through the bloodstream to the kidneys. The kidneys filter out most of the creatinine and dispose of it in the urine.

Because the muscle mass in the body is relatively constant from day to day, the creatinine production normally remains essentially unchanged on a daily basis.

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Digested food particles must travel through 25 feet or more of intestines as part of normal digestion. These digested wastes are constantly in motion. However, intestinal obstruction can put a stop to this. An intestinal obstruction occurs when your small or large intestine is blocked. The blockage can be partial or total, and it prevents passage of fluids and digested food.


If intestinal obstruction happens, food, fluids, gastric acids, and gas build up behind the site of the blockage. If enough pressure builds up, your intestine can rupture, leaking harmful intestinal contents and bacteria into your abdominal cavity. This is a life-threatening complication.


There are many potential causes of intestinal obstruction. Often, this condition can’t be prevented. Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial. An untreated intestinal obstruction can be fatal.

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An intracranial hematoma is a collection of blood within the skull, most commonly caused by rupture of a blood vessel within the brain or from trauma such as a car accident or fall. The blood collection can be within the brain tissue or underneath the skull, pressing on the brain.


Although some head injuries — such as one that causes only a brief lapse of consciousness (concussion) — can be minor, an intracranial hematoma is potentially life-threatening. It usually requires immediate treatment, often surgery to remove the blood.

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Intussusception (in-tuh-suh-SEP-shun) is the most common abdominal emergency affecting children under 2 years old. It happens when one portion of the bowel slides into the next, much like the pieces of a telescope.


When this "telescoping" happens, the flow of fluids and food through the bowel can become blocked, the intestine can swell and bleed, and the blood supply to the affected part of the intestine can get cut off. Eventually, this can cause part of the bowel to die.


Intussusception happens in 1 to 4 out of every 1,000 infants and is most common in babies 5 to 9 months old, though older children also can have it. Boys get intussusception more often than girls.

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The iris is the circular, colored portion of the front of the eye with the dark pupil in the center. It is made up of muscular fibers that control the amount of light entering the pupil so that we can see clearly. The iris accomplishes this task by making the pupil smaller in bright light and larger in dim light.

The iris is the front part of the uveal tract of the eye. The uveal tract consists of the iris, then the ciliary body, and behind that, the choroid. In some people, the iris can become inflamed. This is termed iritis.

Inflammation of the front part of the eye is referred to as anterior uveitis or iritis, whereas inflammation behind this is known as posterior uveitis.

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Ischemic colitis occurs when blood flow to part of the large intestine (colon) is reduced, usually due to narrowed or blocked blood vessels (arteries). The diminished blood flow doesn't provide enough oxygen for the cells in your digestive system.


Ischemic colitis can cause pain and may damage your colon. Any part of the colon can be affected, but ischemic colitis usually causes pain on the left side of the belly area (abdomen).


The condition can be misdiagnosed because it can easily be confused with other digestive problems. Ischemic colitis may heal on its own. But you may need medication to treat ischemic colitis or prevent infection, or you may need surgery if your colon has been damaged.

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Islet cell cancer is a term used to describe a group of cancers that can occur in the hormone-producing cells of the pancreas. Islet cell cancers, also known as pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors, are very rare.


Islet cells are small hormone-producing cells normally found in your pancreas. Islet cell cancer arises from these cells. Some islet cell cancer cells continue to secrete hormones, creating too much of the given hormone in your body. Examples of these types of islet cell cancers include gastrinoma and glucagonoma.

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Jellyfish are a common sea creature found in every ocean. There are many species of jellyfish, all of them with tentacles. Some carry poisonous venom in their tentacles as a method of self-defense against predators. It’s this venom that makes a jellyfish sting so painful.


Most types of jellyfish stings will cause some discomfort, but some can be life-threatening. According to the National Science Foundation, over 500,000 people are stung by jellyfish every year in North America’s Chesapeake Bay alone.

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Keratitis is the medical term for inflammation of the cornea. The cornea is the dome-shaped window in the front of the eye. When looking at a person's eye, one can see the iris and pupil through the normally clear cornea. The cornea bends light rays as a result of its curved shape and accounts for approximately two-thirds of the eye's total optical power, with the lens of the eye contributing the remaining one-third. Only the very thin tear film lies between the front of the cornea and our environment.


The cornea is about 0.5 millimeter thick. The back of the cornea is bathed in the aqueous fluid that fills the anterior chamber of the eye. The cornea has a diameter of about 13 millimeters (½ inch) and, together with the sclera (the white part of the eye) forms the entire outer coat of the eye.

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We see through the cornea, which is the clear outer lens or "windshield" of the eye. Normally, the cornea has a dome shape, like a ball. Sometimes, however, the structure of the cornea is just not strong enough to hold this round shape and the cornea bulges outward like a cone. This condition is called keratoconus.

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A simple kidney cyst is a round pouch of smooth, thin-walled tissue or a closed pocket that is usually filled with fluid. One or more may form within the kidneys. Simple cysts are the most common type of kidney cyst. They are not the same thing as polycystic kidney disease, which is a progressive disease that can lead to kidney failure. Simple kidney cysts most often do not cause harm.

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Kleptomania (klep-toe-MAY-nee-uh) is the recurrent inability to resist urges to steal items that you generally don't really need and that usually have little value. Kleptomania is a rare but serious mental health disorder that can cause much emotional pain to you and your loved ones if not treated.


Kleptomania is a type of impulse control disorder — a disorder that's characterized by problems with emotional or behavioral self-control. If you have an impulse control disorder, you have difficulty resisting the temptation or drive to perform an act that's excessive or harmful to you or someone else.


Many people with kleptomania live lives of secret shame because they're afraid to seek mental health treatment. Although there's no cure for kleptomania, treatment with medication or talk therapy (psychotherapy) may help to end the cycle of compulsive stealing.

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A bursa is a closed, fluid-filled sac that functions as a gliding surface to reduce friction between tissues of the body. Bursae is plural for bursa. The major bursae are located adjacent to the tendons near the large joints, such as the shoulders, elbows, hips, and knees. When a bursa becomes inflamed, the condition is known as bursitis. Most commonly, bursitis is caused by local soft-tissue trauma or strain injury, and there is no infection (aseptic bursitis). On rare occasions, particularly when the immune system is suppressed, the bursa can become infected with bacteria. This condition is called septic bursitis.

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Oh, what a beautiful smile you have there. Every time you smile, your eyes light up. Ah, those crinkles at the corners of the eyes make you look prettier still.


Crow’s feet may or may not look charming, but if I’m guessing right, you would still want to iron them out. Want to know the best treatment for crows feet? Worry not! Have a look at these remedies I’ve gathered, and you can have your wish come true in no time.

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Lewy body dementia (LBD) is a progressive brain disorder in which Lewy bodies (abnormal deposits of a protein called alpha-synuclein) build up in areas of the brain that regulate behavior, cognition, and movement.

 

A complex disease, LBD can present with a range of symptoms including problems with thinking, memory, moving, sleep and/or changes in behavior, to name a few of the physical, cognitive, and behavioral symptoms.

 

LBD also affects autonomic body functions, such as blood pressure control, temperature regulation, and bladder and bowel function. Progressively debilitating, LBD can also cause people to experience visual hallucinations or act out their dreams.

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Lichen nitidus is an unusual/ rare non-infectious skin condition most commonly seen in children. It occurs in the form of hundreds and hundreds of tiny grids of bumps over the skin. They are often found in tight groups that appear like a big patch.


The arms and the folds of the skin are most commonly affected, but they can occur anywhere in the body. In fairer skinned people, these bumps are slightly reddish in color, whereas in darker skinned people, the bumps may vary between lighter or darker in color than the normal skin.

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Limited scleroderma, also known as CREST syndrome, is one subtype of scleroderma — a condition whose name means "hardened skin."


The skin changes associated with limited scleroderma typically occur only in the lower arms and legs, below the elbows and knees, and sometimes affect the face and neck. Limited scleroderma can also affect your digestive tract, heart, lungs or kidneys.


The problems caused by limited scleroderma may be minor. Sometimes, however, the disease affects the lungs or heart, with potentially serious results. Limited scleroderma has no known cure. Treatments focus on managing symptoms, preventing serious complications and improving quality of life.

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Listeriosis is an infection caused by a gram stain-positive motile bacterium named Listeria monocytogenes. The foodborne illness produces fever, muscle aches, and, in many people, diarrhea. Severe infections can cause headaches, meningitis, convulsions, and death. Most healthy people exposed to the bacteria have minor or no symptoms, but a few people, especially the elderly, pregnant females and their fetus, newborns, and anyone with a compromised immune system are especially susceptible to these organisms. Listeria bacteria are widespread throughout the world and are often associated with farm animals that may show no signs of infection. Research shows that many animals are uninfected carriers, and they suggest that some humans carry these organisms as part of their bowel flora. Except for pregnant women and their fetus or newborn, there is no direct transfer of Listeria from human to human.


The organisms (Listeria monocytogenes) that cause listeriosis have probably been infecting humans for centuries. Listeria was first isolated from an infected WWI soldier in 1918 and had many different names until 1940, when the genus and species names were firmly established. However, the bacteria were first recognized as a food-borne (food poisoning) pathogen in 1979. The bacteria can penetrate human cells and can multiply inside them. People with altered or impaired immune systems have cells that are less able to control the spread of these organisms into the blood or into other cells. In 2010, a known species, Listeria ivanovii, thought only to infect cattle, was found to infect humans so there are two Listeria species that can infect humans.


Outbreaks of listeriosis can occur with some frequency. For example, in 2017, soft raw milk cheese was a source of an outbreak (Vulto Creamery). In this outbreak, eight people were infected and two died. Other recalls of products in 2017 include 3 tons of cheese for possible Listeria contamination (La Nica Products INC.), macadamia nuts (Simple Truth brand), Ava's Organic Cashews, and Queso Fresco cheese, for the same problem.

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Long QT syndrome (LQTS) is a heart rhythm condition that can potentially cause fast, chaotic heartbeats. These rapid heartbeats might trigger a sudden fainting spell or seizure. In some cases, the heart can beat erratically for so long that it causes sudden death.


You can have a genetic mutation that puts you at risk of being born with congenital long QT syndrome. In addition, certain medications, imbalances of the body's salts and minerals (electrolyte abnormalities), and medical conditions might cause acquired long QT syndrome.


Long QT syndrome is treatable. You might need to take medications to prevent an erratic heart rhythm. In some cases, treatment for long QT syndrome involves surgery or an implantable device.


You'll also need to avoid certain medications that could trigger your long QT syndrome. After treatment, you likely can live and thrive, even with this condition. You may be able to continue being active in recreational — and even competitive — sports.

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Answer: Low sperm count implies that the fluids (semen) you ejaculate in the course of an orgasm consist of lesser sperm when compared with normal.


A low sperm count can be referred to as oligospermia. A total lack of sperm is known as Azoospermia. Your own sperm count is regarded as less than normal when you have less than fifteen million sperm per millilitre of semen.


Having a low sperm count reduces the chances that one of your own sperm will certainly fertilize the partner’s egg, leading to pregnancy. Nevertheless, numerous males that have a low sperm count will still be in a position to father a baby.

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Lupus nephritis is inflammation of the kidney that is caused by systemic lupus erythematous (SLE). Also called lupus, SLE is an autoimmune disease. With lupus, the body's immune system targets its own body tissues. Lupus nephritis happens when lupus involves the kidneys.


Up to 60% of lupus patients will develop lupus nephritis. When the kidneys are inflamed, they can't function normally and can leak protein. If not controlled, lupus nephritis can lead to kidney failure.

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Male breast cancer is a rare cancer that forms in the breast tissue of men. Though breast cancer is most commonly thought of as a woman's disease, male breast cancer does occur.Male breast cancer is most common in older men, though it can occur at any age.Men diagnosed with male breast cancerat an early stage have a good chance for a cure. Still, many men delay seeing their doctors if they notice one of the usual signs or symptoms, such as a breast lump. For this reason, many male breast cancers are diagnosed when the disease is more advanced.


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Malignant hyperthermia is a condition that triggers a severe reaction to certain drugs used as part of anesthesia for surgery. Without prompt treatment, the disease can be fatal.The genes that cause malignant hyperthermia are inherited. In most cases, no signs or symptoms of the condition exist until you are exposed to anesthesia.


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Mammary duct ectasia (ek-TAY-zhuh) occurs when a milk duct beneath your nipple widens, the duct walls thicken and the duct fills with fluid. The milk duct may become blocked or clogged with a thick, sticky substance. The condition often causes no symptoms, but some women may have nipple discharge, breast tenderness or inflammation of the clogged duct (periductal mastitis).

Mammary duct ectasia most often occurs in women of perimenopausal age — around 45 to 55 years — but it can happen after menopause, too. The condition sometimes improves without treatment. If symptoms persist, you may need antibiotics or possibly surgery to remove the affected milk duct.Though it's normal to worry about any changes in your breasts, mammary duct ectasia and periductal mastisis aren't risk factors for breast cancer


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Cystic fibrosis is an inherited disorder that causes severe damage to the lungs, digestive system and other organs in the body.


Cystic fibrosis affects the cells that produce mucus, sweat and digestive juices. These secreted fluids are normally thin and slippery. But in people with cystic fibrosis, a defective gene causes the secretions to become sticky and thick. Instead of acting as a lubricant, the secretions plug up tubes, ducts and passageways, especially in the lungs and pancreas.


Although cystic fibrosis requires daily care, people with the condition are usually able to attend school and work, and often have a better quality of life than people with cystic fibrosis had in previous decades. Improvements in screening and treatments mean people with cystic fibrosis now may live into their mid- to late 30s, on average, and some are living into their 40s and 50s.

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MEdulloblastoma is a cancerous tumor—also called cerebellar primitive neuroectodermal tumor (PNET)—that starts in the region of the brain at the base of the skull, called the posterior fossa. These tumors tend to spread to other parts of the brain and to the spinal cord


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Membranous nephropathy (MEM-bruh-nus nuh-FROP-uh-thee) occurs when the small blood vessels in the kidney (glomeruli), which filter wastes from the blood, become damaged and thickened. As a result, proteins leak from the damaged blood vessels into the urine (proteinuria). For many, loss of these proteins eventually causes signs and symptoms known as nephrotic syndrome.In mild cases, membranous nephropathy may get better on its own, without any treatment. As protein leakage increases, so does the risk of long-term kidney damage. In many, the disease ultimately leads to kidney failure. There's no absolute cure for membranous nephropathy, but successful treatment can lead to remission of proteinuria and a good long-term outlook.


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Mental illness refers to a wide range of mental health conditions — disorders that affect your mood, thinking and behavior. Examples of mental illness include depression, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, eating disorders and addictive behaviors.

Many people have mental health concerns from time to time. But a mental health concern becomes a mental illness when ongoing signs and symptoms cause frequent stress and affect your ability to function.

A mental illness can make you miserable and can cause problems in your daily life, such as at school or work or in relationships. In most cases, symptoms can be managed with a combination of medications and talk therapy (psychotherapy).

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Meralgia paresthetica is a condition characterized by tingling, numbness and burning pain in your outer thigh. The cause of meralgia paresthetica is compression of the nerve that supplies sensation to the skin surface of your thigh.

Tight clothing, obesity or weight gain, and pregnancy are common causes of meralgia paresthetica. However, meralgia paresthetica can also be due to local trauma or a disease, such as diabetes.

In most cases, you can relieve meralgia paresthetica with conservative measures, such as wearing looser clothing. In severe cases, treatment may include medications to relieve discomfort or, rarely, surgery.

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Mesenteric ischemia (mez-un-TER-ik is-KEE-me-uh) is a condition caused by poor blood supply to your intestines. Mesenteric ischemia usually affects the small intestine, colon or both. It may also involve other organs in the digestive system. Mesenteric ischemia may be acute or chronic.Acute mesenteric ischemia occurs suddenly as a result of blockage to the flow of oxygen-rich blood and can permanently damage your intestines. You may experience sudden abdominal pain and, less often, bloody stools. This situation requires immediate medical care.

Chronic mesenteric ischemia occurs gradually from narrowing in one or more of the arteries supplying blood to your intestines (visceral arteries). You may develop pain 1 to 2 hours after eating, This pain may make it hard for you to eat, leading to weight loss. You may also notice changes in the frequency of your bowel movements, as well as bloating, nausea and vomiting.


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Lymphadenitis is a condition in which your lymph nodes become inflamed. When the condition affects the lymph nodes in the membrane that connects your bowel to the abdominal wall (mesentery), it's called mesenteric lymphadenitis (mez-un-TER-ik lim-fad-uh-NIE-tis).Mesenteric lymphadenitis, which is also called mesenteric adenitis, usually results from an intestinal infection. It mainly affects children and teens. This painful condition can mimic the warning signs of appendicitis. Unlike appendicitis, mesenteric lymphadenitis is seldom serious and usually clears up on its own

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Malignant mesothelioma (me-zoe-thee-lee-O-muh) is a type of cancer that occurs in the thin layer of tissue that covers the majority of your internal organs (mesothelium).Mesothelioma is an aggressive and deadly form of cancer. Mesothelioma treatments are available, but for many people with mesothelioma, a cure is not possible.Doctors divide mesothelioma into different types based on what part of the mesothelium is affected. Mesothelioma most often affects the tissue that surrounds the lungs (pleura). This type is called pleural mesothelioma. Other, rarer types of mesothelioma affect tissue in the abdomen (peritoneal mesothelioma), around the heart and around the testicles.Mesothelioma doesn't include a form of noncancerous (benign) tumor that occurs in the chest and is sometimes called benign mesothelioma or solitary fibrous tumor.

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Metatarsalgia (met-uh-tahr-SAL-juh) is a condition in which the ball of your foot becomes painful and inflamed. You might develop it if you participate in activities that involve running and jumping. There are other causes as well, including foot deformities and shoes that are too tight or too loose.Although generally not serious, metatarsalgia can sideline you. Fortunately, at-home treatments, such as ice and rest, often relieve symptoms. Wearing proper footwear with shock-absorbing insoles or arch supports might prevent or minimize future problems with metatarsalgia.

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MC is an inflammatory bowel condition that presents with chronic watery diarrhea but with macroscopically normal colonoscopy findings. Histological evidence of pathology is only seen through biopsies of the colonic mucosa. This is a fairly recent disease entity that was first described in the 1970s; hence, information on incidences may be underreported. Epidemiological analyses of endoscopic biopsies performed for diarrhea in North America found an incidence of 8.6 per 100,000 from 1985 to 2001.1 However, more recent studies based on the same population from 2002 to 2010 showed that incidences of MC more than doubled over that last decade with rates of 21.0 cases per 100,000 person-years.2 This probably reflects increasing awareness of the disease among both endoscopists and pathologists, leading to higher rates of detection.

Collagenous colitis (CC) and lymphocytic colitis (LC) are two subtypes of MC that have similar presentations. Histologically, however, they have distinct characteristics. It is still a controversy whether CC and LC are just really one disease under MC, or if they should be considered as two distinct diseases that share some features. A review of 226 studies on CC and LC found little to no differences in epidemiology, clinical presentation, risk factors, and response to treatment.

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Migraine with aura (also called classic migraine) is a headache that strikes after or along with sensory disturbances called aura. These disturbances can include flashes of light, blind spots and other vision changes or tingling in your hand or face.Treatments for migraine with aura and migraine without aura (also called common migraine) are usually the same. You can try to prevent migraine with aura with the same medications and self-care measures used to prevent migraine.

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Mitral valve prolapse (MVP) occurs when the leaflets of the mitral valve bulge (prolapse) into the heart's left upper chamber (left atrium) like a parachute during the heart's contraction.Mitral (MY-trul) valve prolapse sometimes leads to blood leaking backward into the left atrium, a condition called mitral valve regurgitation.in most people, mitral valve prolapse isn't life-threatening and doesn't require treatment or changes in lifestyle. Some people with mitral valve prolapse, however, require treatment.

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Mitral valve stenosis — or mitral stenosis — is a narrowing of the heart's mitral valve. This abnormal valve doesn't open properly, blocking blood flow into the main pumping chamber of your heart (left ventricle). Mitral valve stenosis can make you tired and short of breath, among other problems.The main cause of mitral valve stenosis is an infection called rheumatic fever, which is related to strep infections. Rheumatic fever — now rare in the United States, but still common in developing countries — can scar the mitral valve. Left untreated, mitral valve stenosis can lead to serious heart complications.

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Mittelschmerz is one-sided, lower abdominal pain associated with ovulation. German for "middle pain," mittelschmerz occurs midway through a menstrual cycle — about 14 days before your next menstrual period.In most cases, mittelschmerz doesn't require medical attention. For minor mittelschmerz discomfort, over-the-counter pain relievers and home remedies are often effective. If your mittelschmerz pain is troublesome, your doctor may prescribe an oral contraceptive to stop ovulation and prevent midcycle pain.


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Allergic rhinitis, also known as hay fever, is a type of inflammation in the nose which occurs when the immune system overreacts to allergens in the air. Signs and symptoms include a runny or stuffy nose, sneezing, red, itchy, and watery eyes, and swelling around the eyes. The fluid from the nose is usually clear. Symptom onset is often within minutes following exposure and they can affect sleep, the ability to work, and the ability to concentrate at school. Those whose symptoms are due to pollen typically develop symptoms during specific times of the year. Many people with allergic rhinitis also have asthma, allergic conjunctivitis, or atopic dermatitis.
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Molluscum contagiosum is an infection caused by a poxvirus (molluscum contagiosum virus). The result of the infection is usually a benign, mild skin disease characterized by lesions (growths) that may appear anywhere on the body. Within 6-12 months, Molluscum contagiosum typically resolves without scarring but may take as long as 4 years.The lesions, known as Mollusca, are small, raised, and usually white, pink, or flesh-colored with a dimple or pit in the center. They often have a pearly appearance. They’re usually smooth and firm. In most people, the lesions range from about the size of a pinhead to as large as a pencil eraser (2 to 5 millimeters in diameter). They may become itchy, sore, red, and/or swollen.Mollusca may occur anywhere on the body including the face, neck, arms, legs, abdomen, and genital area, alone or in groups. The lesions are rarely found on the palms of the hands or the soles of the feet.


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Mouth cancer, also known as oral cancer, is where a tumour develops in the lining of the mouth. It may be on the surface of the tongue, the insides of the cheeks, the roof of the mouth (palate), or the lips or gums.Tumours can also develop in the glands that produce saliva, the tonsils at the back of the mouth, and the part of the throat connecting your mouth to your windpipe (pharynx). However, these are less common.

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Movement disorders are clinical syndromes with either an excess of movement or a paucity of voluntary and involuntary movements, unrelated to weakness or spasticity.[1] Movement disorders are synonymous with basal ganglia or extrapyramidal diseases.[2] Movement disorders are conventionally divided into two major categories- hyperkinetic and hypokinetic.Hyperkinetic movement disorders refer to dyskinesia, or excessive, often repetitive, involuntary movements that intrude upon the normal flow of motor activity.Hypokinetic movement disorders refer to akinesia (lack of movement), hypokinesia (reduced amplitude of movements), bradykinesia (slow movement) and rigidity. In primary movement disorders, the abnormal movement is the primary manifestation of the disorder. In secondary movement disorders, the abnormal movement is a manifestation of another systemic or neurological disorde


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Staphylococcus aureus (SA) is a common skin bacteria. It is sometimes called staph, and it most often causes skin and soft tissue infections. Although S. aureus has been causing staph infections as long as humans have existed, MRSA has only been around since 1961. Methicillin was one of the first antibiotics used to treat S. aureus and other infections. S. aureus developed a gene mutation that allowed it to escape being killed by methicillin, so it became resistant to methicillin. That makes it harder to treat someone who gets an infection. Stronger, more expensive, or intravenous antibiotics may be needed.


Since the 1960s, MRSA has picked up more resistance to different antibiotics. Overuse of antibiotics has increased resistance in MRSA and other infectious bacteria, because resistance genes (the genes that code for resistance) can be passed from bacteria to bacteria.


If a doctor orders a test for bacteria on a specimen of pus, for example, the laboratory will alert the doctor if the test shows MRSA, so that precautions can be taken, and the right treatment can be started.

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Multiple myeloma is a cancer that forms in a type of white blood cell called a plasma cell. Plasma cells help you fight infections by making antibodies that recognize and attack germs.Multiple myeloma causes cancer cells to accumulate in the bone marrow, where they crowd out healthy blood cells. Rather than produce helpful antibodies, the cancer cells produce abnormal proteins that can cause complications.Treatment for multiple myeloma isn't always necessary for people who aren't experiencing any signs or symptoms. For people with multiple myeloma who require treatment, a number of treatments are available to help control the disease.

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Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a potentially disabling disease of the brain and spinal cord (central nervous system).In MS, the immune system attacks the protective sheath (myelin) that covers nerve fibers and causes communication problems between your brain and the rest of your body. Eventually, the disease can cause the nerves themselves to deteriorate or become permanently damaged.Signs and symptoms of MS vary widely and depend on the amount of nerve damage and which nerves are affected. Some people with severe MS may lose the ability to walk independently or at all, while others may experience long periods of remission without any new symptoms.There's no cure for multiple sclerosis. However, treatments can help speed recovery from attacks, modify the course of the disease and manage symptoms.

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Myasthenia gravis (my-us-THEE-nee-uh GRAY-vis) is characterized by weakness and rapid fatigue of any of the muscles under your voluntary control.Myasthenia gravis is caused by a breakdown in the normal communication between nerves and muscles.There is no cure for myasthenia gravis, but treatment can help relieve signs and symptoms, such as weakness of arm or leg muscles, double vision, drooping eyelids, and difficulties with speech, chewing, swallowing and breathing.Though myasthenia gravis can affect people of any age, it's more common in women younger than 40 and in men older than 60.

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Myelodysplastic syndromes are a group of disorders caused by poorly formed blood cells or ones that don't work properly. Myelodysplastic syndromes result from something amiss in the spongy material inside your bones where blood cells are made (bone marrow).Treatment for myelodysplastic syndromes usually focuses on reducing or preventing complications of the disease and its treatments. In some cases, treatment might involve chemotherapy or a bone marrow transplant.

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Myocarditis is a disease marked by inflammation and damage of the heart muscle. Although the exact incidence of myocarditis is not known, it is estimated that several thousand patients per year are diagnosed in the United States. Myocarditis usually attacks otherwise healthy people. It is believed that 5 to 20% of all cases of sudden death in young adults are due to myocarditis.There are many causes of myocarditis, including viral infections, autoimmune diseases, environmental toxins, and adverse reactions to medications. The prognosis is variable but chronic heart failure is the major long term complication. Myocarditis and the associated disorder of idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy are the cause of approximately 45% of heart transplants in the United States.Subscribe to the Myocarditis Foundation Newsletter to receive the latest news and real-life stories delivered right to your email inbox!

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Naegleria (nay-GLEER-e-uh) infection is a rare and usually fatal brain infection caused by an amoeba commonly found in freshwater lakes, rivers and hot springs. Exposure occurs during swimming or other water sports.The amoeba — called Naegleria fowleri — travels up the nose to the brain, where it causes severe damage. Most people who have naegleria infection die within a week.Millions of people are exposed to the amoeba that causes naegleria infection each year, but only a handful of them ever get sick from it. Health officials don't know why some people develop naegleria infection while others don't.Avoiding warm bodies of fresh water and wearing nose clips while in the water may help prevent such infections.

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Nearsightedness (myopia) is a common vision condition in which you can see objects near to you clearly, but objects farther away are blurry.Nearsightedness may develop gradually or rapidly, often worsening during childhood and adolescence. Nearsightedness tends to run in families.A basic eye exam can confirm nearsightedness. You can easily correct the condition with eyeglasses or contact lenses. Another treatment option for nearsightedness is surgery.

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Nephrotic syndrome is a kidney disorder that causes your body to excrete too much protein in your urine.Nephrotic syndrome is usually caused by damage to the clusters of small blood vessels in your kidneys that filter waste and excess water from your blood. Nephrotic syndrome causes swelling (edema), particularly in your feet and ankles, and increases the risk of other health problems.Treatment for nephrotic syndrome includes treating the underlying condition that's causing it and taking medications. Nephrotic syndrome can increase your risk of infections and blood clots. Your doctor may recommend medications and dietary changes to prevent these and other complications of nephrotic syndrome.

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Neurodermatitis is a skin condition that begins with an itch.The itch can develop anywhere on the surface of the body. Most commonly, though, an itchy patch develops on an arm, leg, or the back of the neck. It also commonly develops in the anal and genital areas. When it appears in the genital area, it often appears on the scrotum or vulva.The itch can be so intense that a person scratches or rubs the itchy patch frequently. The itch can also come and go. For most people, the area feels itchiest when they are relaxing or sleeping. The itch causes people to scratch or rub the area while sleeping — and it can awaken someone from a sound sleep.Quite often, the itch begins during an especially stressful time in someone’s life. Even when the stress subsides, the itch usually continues. Scratching or rubbing can change the appearance of that itchy patch.

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Neuroendocrine tumors are abnormal growths that begin in specialized cells called neuroendocrine cells. Neuroendocrine cells have traits similar to nerve cells and to hormone-producing cells.Neuroendocrine tumors are rare and can occur anywhere in the body. Most neuroendocrine tumors occur in the lungs, appendix, small intestine, rectum and pancreas.Neuroendocrine tumors can be noncancerous (benign) or cancerous (malignant).Diagnosis and treatment of neuroendocrine tumors depend on the type of tumor, its location, whether it produces excess hormones, how aggressive it is and whether it has spread to other parts of the body

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Neurofibromatosis is a genetic disorder that causes tumors to form on nerve tissue. These tumors can develop anywhere in your nervous system, including your brain, spinal cord and nerves. Neurofibromatosis is usually diagnosed in childhood or early adulthood.The tumors are usually noncancerous (benign), but sometimes can become cancerous (malignant). Symptoms are often mild. However, complications of neurofibromatosis can include hearing loss, learning impairment, heart and blood vessel (cardiovascular) problems, loss of vision, and severe pain.Neurofibromatosis treatment aims to maximize healthy growth and development and to manage complications as soon as they arise. When neurofibromatosis causes large tumors or tumors that press on a nerve, surgery can help ease symptoms. Some people may benefit from other therapies, such as stereotactic radiosurgery or medications to control pain.

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Nicotine dependence ― also called tobacco dependence ― is an addiction to tobacco products caused by the drug nicotine. Nicotine dependence means you can't stop using the substance, even though it's causing you harm.Nicotine produces physical and mood-altering effects in your brain that are temporarily pleasing. These effects make you want to use tobacco and lead to dependence. At the same time, stopping tobacco use causes withdrawal symptoms, including irritability and anxiety.While it's the nicotine in tobacco that causes nicotine dependence, the toxic effects of tobacco result from other substances in tobacco. Smokers have much higher rates of heart disease, stroke and cancer than nonsmokers do.Regardless of how long you've smoked, stopping smoking can improve your health. Many effective treatments for nicotine dependence are available to help you manage withdrawal and stop smoking for good. Ask your doctor for hel

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A nightmare is a disturbing dream associated with negative feelings, such as anxiety or fear that awakens you. Nightmares are common in children, but can happen at any age, and occasional nightmares usually are nothing to worry about.Nightmares may begin in children between 3 and 6 years old and tend to decrease after the age of 10. During the teen and young adult years, girls appear to have nightmares more often than boys do. Some people have them as adults or throughout their lives.Although nightmares are common, nightmare disorder is relatively rare. Nightmare disorder is when nightmares happen often, cause distress, disrupt sleep, cause problems with daytime functioning or create fear of going to sleep.

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Nonallergic rhinitis with eosinophilia syndrome (NARES) is a clinical syndrome comprising symptoms consistent with allergic rhinitis in which an absence of atopy has been demonstrated by allergen skin testing, and nasal cytology analysis demonstrates more than 20% eosinophils. Anosmia is a prominent feature not shared with allergic rhinitis. The pathophysiology of NARES is poorly understood, but a key component involves a self-perpetuating, chronic eosinophilic nasal inflammation with development of nasal micropolyposis and polyposis. Mast cells likely play an important role as well. NARES is a risk factor for the development of nasal polyposis and aspirin sensitivity, as well as obstructive sleep apnea. Treatment consists mainly of intranasal corticosteroids with or without the addition of second-generation antihistamines and/or leukotriene-receptor antagonists.

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Nonulcer stomach pain is a term for recurring signs and symptoms of indigestion that have no obvious cause. Nonulcer stomach pain is also called functional dyspepsia (dis-PEP-see-uh) or nonulcer dyspepsia.Nonulcer stomach pain is common and can be long lasting. The condition can cause signs and symptoms that resemble those of an ulcer, such as pain or discomfort in your upper abdomen, often accompanied by bloating, belching and nausea.

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Norovirus infection can cause the sudden onset of severe vomiting and diarrhea. The virus is highly contagious and commonly spread through food or water that is contaminated during preparation or contaminated surfaces. You can also be infected through close contact with an infected person.Diarrhea, abdominal pain and vomiting typically begin 12 to 48 hours after exposure. Norovirus symptoms last one to three days, and most people recover completely without treatment. However, for some people — especially infants, older adults and people with underlying disease — vomiting and diarrhea can be severely dehydrating and require medical attention.Norovirus infection occurs most frequently in closed and crowded environments such as hospitals, nursing homes, child care centers, schools and cruise ships.

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Occupational asthma is asthma that's caused or worsened by breathing in chemical fumes, gases, dust or other substances on the job. Like other types of asthma, occupational asthma can cause chest tightness, wheezing and shortness of breath.When treated early, occupational asthma may be reversible. Long-term exposure to allergy-causing substances can cause worsening symptoms and lifelong asthma.Treatment for occupational asthma is similar to treatment for other types of asthma, and it generally includes taking medications to reduce symptoms. But the only sure way to eliminate your symptoms and prevent lung damage due to occupational asthma is to avoid whatever's triggering it.

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Optic neuritis is an inflammation that damages the optic nerve, a bundle of nerve fibers that transmits visual information from your eye to your brain. Pain and temporary vision loss in one eye are common symptoms of optic neuritis.

Optic neuritis is linked to multiple sclerosis (MS), a disease that causes inflammation and damage to nerves in your brain and spinal cord. Signs and symptoms of optic neuritis can be the first indication of multiple sclerosis, or they can occur later in the course of MS. Besides MS, optic neuritis can occur with other infections or immune diseases, such as lupus.

Most people who have a single episode of optic neuritis eventually recover their vision. Treatment with steroid medications may speed up vision recovery after optic neuritis.

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Oral thrush — also called oral candidiasis (kan-dih-DIE-uh-sis) — is a condition in which the fungus Candida albicans accumulates on the lining of your mouth. Candida is a normal organism in your mouth, but sometimes it can overgrow and cause symptoms.Oral thrush causes creamy white lesions, usually on your tongue or inner cheeks. Sometimes oral thrush may spread to the roof of your mouth, your gums or tonsils, or the back of your throat.Although oral thrush can affect anyone, it's more likely to occur in babies and older adults because they have reduced immunity; in other people with suppressed immune systems or certain health conditions; or people who take certain medications. Oral thrush is a minor problem if you're healthy, but if you have a weakened immune system, symptoms may be more severe and difficult to control.


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Orchitis (or-KIE-tis) is an inflammation of one or both testicles. It is usually caused by a bacterial infection or by the mumps virus.Bacterial orchitis can be caused by sexually transmitted infections (STIs), particularly gonorrhea or chlamydia. Bacterial orchitis often results from epididymitis, an inflammation of the coiled tube (epididymis) at the back of the testicle that stores and carries sperm. In that case, it's called epididymo-orchitis.Orchitis causes pain and can affect fertility. Medication can treat the causes of bacterial orchitis and can ease some signs and symptoms of viral orchitis. But it may take several weeks for scrotal tenderness to disappear.

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The bones of children and adolescents possess a special area where the bone is growing called the growth plate. Growth plates are areas of cartilage located near the ends of bones. When a child is fully grown, the growth plates harden into solid bone.Some growth plates serve as attachment sites for tendons, the strong tissues that connect muscles to bones. A bony bump called the tibial tubercle covers the growth plate at the end of the tibia. The group of muscles in the front of the thigh (called the quadriceps) attaches to the tibial tubercle.When a child is active, the quadriceps muscles pull on the patellar tendon which in turn, pulls on the tibial tubercle. In some children, this repetitive traction on the tubercle leads to inflammation of the growth plate. The prominence, or bump, of the tibial tubercle may become very pronounced.

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Osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) is a condition that develops in joints, most often in children and adolescents. It occurs when a small segment of bone begins to separate from its surrounding region due to a lack of blood supply. As a result, the small piece of bone and the cartilage covering it begin to crack and loosen.The most common joints affected by osteochondritis dissecans are the knee, ankle and elbow, although it can also occur in other joints. The condition typically affects just one joint, however, some children can develop OCD in several joints.In many cases of OCD in children, the affected bone and cartilage heal on their own, especially if a child is still growing. In grown children and young adults, OCD can have more severe effects. The OCD lesions have a greater chance of separating from the surrounding bone and cartilage, and can even detach and float around inside the joint. In these cases, surgery may be necessary.


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Osteomyelitis is an infection of the bone, a rare but serious condition. Bones can become infected in a number of ways: Infection in one part of the body may spread through the bloodstream into the bone, or an open fracture or surgery may expose the bone to infection.

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Osteosarcoma is the most common type of cancer that develops in bone. Like the osteoblasts in normal bone, the cells that form this cancer make bone matrix. But the bone matrix of an osteosarcoma is not as strong as that of normal bones.Most osteosarcomas occur in children and young adults. Teens are the most commonly affected age group, but osteosarcoma can occur at any ageIn children and young adults, osteosarcoma usually develops in areas where the bone is growing quickly, such as near the ends of the long bones. Most tumors develop in the bones around the knee, either in the distal femur (the lower part of the thigh bone) or the proximal tibia (the upper part of the shinbone). The proximal humerus (the part of the upper arm bone close to the shoulder) is the next most common site. However, osteosarcoma can develop in any bone, including the bones of the pelvis (hips), shoulder, and jaw. This is especially true in older adults.


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Pancreatic cysts are collections (pools) of fluid that can form within the head, body, and tail of the pancreas. Some pancreatic cysts are true cysts (non-inflammatory cysts), that is, they are lined by a special layer of cells that are responsible for secreting fluid into the cysts. Other cysts are pseudocysts (inflammatory cysts) and do not contain specialized lining cells. Often these pseudocysts contain pancreatic digestive juices because they are connected to the pancreatic ducts. Pancreatic cysts can range in size from several millimeters to several centimeters. Many pancreatic cysts are small and benign and produce no symptoms, but some cysts become large and cause symptoms, and others are cancerous or precancerous. (Precancerous cysts are benign cysts that have the potential to become cancerous.)Different types of cysts contain different types of fluids. For example, pseudocysts that form after an attack of acute pancreatitis contain digestive enzymes such as amylase in high concentrations. Mucinous cysts contain mucus (a proteinaceous liquid) produced by the mucinous cells that form the inside lining of the cyst.


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Both benign (non-cancerous) and cancerous salivary gland tumors may develop anywhere in the salivary glands, but the majority of them are parotid tumors. In fact, as many as 80% of salivary gland tumors begin in the parotid glands. 15% occur in the submandibular glands, and 5% form in the sublingual and minor glands. While most salivary gland tumors occur in the parotid glands, only 20% of them are cancerous. With this in mind, we want to stress that it is important that you come see us if you are find a mass in your parotid gland so we can perform a biopsy. This will allow us to determine whether a growth is cancerous or not, and in turn come up with a treatment plan that may require parotid surgery on the tumor.

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Parvovirus infection is a common and highly contagious childhood ailment — sometimes called slapped-cheek disease because of the distinctive face rash that develops. Parvovirus infection has also been known as fifth disease because, historically, it was one of five common childhood illnesses characterized by a rash.In most children, parvovirus infection is mild and requires little treatment. However, in some adults, the infection can be serious. Parvovirus infection in some pregnant women can lead to serious health problems for the fetus. Parvovirus infection is also more serious for people with some kinds of anemia or who have a compromised immune system.

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Patellar tendinitis is an injury to the tendon connecting your kneecap (patella) to your shinbone. The patellar tendon works with the muscles at the front of your thigh to extend your knee so you can kick, run and jump.Patellar tendinitis, also known as jumper's knee, is most common in athletes whose sports involve frequent jumping — such as basketball and volleyball. However, even people who don't participate in jumping sports can get patellar tendinitis.For most people, treatment of patellar tendinitis begins with physical therapy to stretch and strengthen the muscles around the knee

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A foramen ovale is a hole in the heart. The small hole naturally exists in babies who are still in the womb for fetal circulation. It should close soon after birth. If it doesn’t close, the condition is called patent foramen ovale (PFO).PFOs are common. They occur in roughly one out of every four people. If you have no other heart conditions or complications, treatment for PFO is unnecessary.While a fetus develops in the womb, a small opening exists between the two upper chambers of the heart called the atria. This opening is called the foramen ovale. The purpose of the foramen ovale is to help circulate blood through the heart. A fetus doesn’t use their own lungs to oxygenate their blood. They rely on their mother’s circulation to provide oxygen to their blood from the placenta. The foramen ovale helps blood circulate more quickly in the absence of lung function.When your baby is born and their lungs begin to work, the pressure inside their heart usually causes the foramen ovale to close. Sometimes it may not happen for a year or two. In some people, the closure may never happen at all, resulting in PFO.

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Many schools have declared that they are “nut-free,” meaning that the onetime staple of kids’ lunchboxes — a peanut butter and jelly sandwich — is nowhere to be found on school grounds these days. That’s because peanuts can cause a life-threatening reaction in some people. Peanuts are one of the food allergens most commonly associated with anaphylaxis, a sudden and potentially deadly condition that requires immediate attention and treatment.In recent years, awareness about peanut allergy in children has risen, as has the number of peanut allergy cases reported. In May 2010, a study noted that the rate of peanut allergies in children, as reported in a telephone survey, had more than tripled between 1997 and 2008.There are several misconceptions about peanut allergies. A peanut is a legume (belonging to the same family as soybeans, peas and lentils), not a tree nut. And while it was previously believed that an allergy to peanuts was lifelong, research by the National Institutes of Health shows that about 20 percent of individuals with a peanut allergy eventually outgrow it.


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Pectus carinatum, sometimes called pigeon chest, is a non-life-threatening condition. It’s marked by an abnormally outward protruding breastbone caused by rapid cartilage growth forcing the chest cavity outward. Occasionally, symptoms are present from birth or early childhood, but it’s most commonly diagnosed around 11 or 12 years of age.For most children, pectus carinatum is an aesthetic issue only. This condition frequently results in an asymmetrical chest. In more severe cases, symptoms may also include difficulty breathing during physical activities, recurring respiratory infections, and asthma.While its cause is unknown, it appears to be more common in boys, and there seems to be a hereditary component. If needed, treatment for pectus carinatum usually includes wearing a brace for children whose bones are still developing. But it can also include surgery for severe cases.

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Pectus excavatum is a condition in which a person's breastbone is sunken into his or her chest. In severe cases, pectus excavatum can look as if the center of the chest has been scooped out, leaving a deep dent.While the sunken breastbone is often noticeable shortly after birth, the severity of pectus excavatum typically worsens during the adolescent growth spurt.Also called funnel chest, pectus excavatum is more common in boys than in girls. Severe cases of pectus excavatum can eventually interfere with the function of the heart and lungs. But even mild cases of pectus excavatum can make children feel self-conscious about their appearance. Surgery can correct the deformity.

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Pediatric brain tumors are masses or growths of abnormal cells that occur in a child's brain or the tissue and structures that are near it. Many different types of pediatric brain tumors exist — some are noncancerous (benign) and some are cancerous (malignant).Treatment and chance of recovery (prognosis) depend on the type of tumor, its location within the brain, whether it has spread, and your child's age and general health. Because new treatments and technologies are continually being developed, several options may be available at different points in treatment.Treatment for brain tumors in children is typically quite different from treatment for adult brain tumors, so it's very important to enlist the expertise and experience of pediatric specialists in neurology and cancer.

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An “ulcer” is an open sore. The word “peptic” means that the cause of the problem is due to acid. Most of the time when a gastroenterologist is referring to an “ulcer” the doctor means a peptic ulcer.The two most common types of peptic ulcer are called “gastric ulcers” and “duodenal ulcers”. These names refer to the location where the ulcer is found. Gastric ulcers are located in the stomach (see Figure 1). Duodenal ulcers are found at the beginning of the small intestine (also called the small bowel) known as the duodenum. A person may have both gastric and duodenal ulcers at the same time.

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Pericarditis is swelling and irritation of the pericardium, the thin saclike membrane surrounding your heart. Pericarditis often causes chest pain and sometimes other symptoms. The sharp chest pain associated with pericarditis occurs when the irritated layers of the pericardium rub against each other.Pericarditis usually begins suddenly but doesn't last long (acute). When symptoms develop more gradually or persist, pericarditis is considered chronic.Most cases are mild and usually improve on their own. Treatment for more-severe cases may include medications and, rarely, surgery. Early diagnosis and treatment may help to reduce the risk of long-term complications from pericarditis.

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Peripheral artery disease (also called peripheral arterial disease) is a common circulatory problem in which narrowed arteries reduce blood flow to your limbs.When you develop peripheral artery disease (PAD), your extremities — usually your legs — don't receive enough blood flow to keep up with demand. This causes symptoms, most notably leg pain when walking (claudication).Peripheral artery disease is also likely to be a sign of a more widespread accumulation of fatty deposits in your arteries (atherosclerosis). This condition may be reducing blood flow to your heart and brain, as well as your legs.You often can successfully treat peripheral artery disease by quitting tobacco, exercising and eating a healthy diet

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Peripheral nerve tumors are growths in or near the strands of tissue (nerves) that transmit signals from your brain to the rest of your body. These nerves control your muscles so that you can walk, blink, swallow, pick things up and do other activities.Peripheral nerve tumors can occur anywhere in the body. Most of them aren't cancerous (malignant), but they can lead to pain, nerve damage and loss of function in the affected area.Treatment of peripheral nerve tumors usually involves surgery to remove the tumor. Sometimes the tumor can't be removed without damaging nearby healthy tissue and nerves. In these cases, other treatments may be recommended.Several types of peripheral nerve tumors occur. These tumors affect nerves by growing within them (intraneural tumors) or by pressing against them (extraneural tumors).

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Peripheral neuropathy, a result of damage to your peripheral nerves, often causes weakness, numbness and pain, usually in your hands and feet. It can also affect other areas of your body.

Your peripheral nervous system sends information from your brain and spinal cord (central nervous system) to the rest of your body. Peripheral neuropathy can result from traumatic injuries, infections, metabolic problems, inherited causes and exposure to toxins. One of the most common causes is diabetes mellitus.

People with peripheral neuropathy generally describe the pain as stabbing, burning or tingling. In many cases, symptoms improve, especially if caused by a treatable condition. Medications can reduce the pain of peripheral neuropathy.


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Peritonitis is inflammation of the peritoneum, the thin layer of tissue covering the inside of your abdomen and most of its organs. The inflammation is usually the result of a fungal or bacterial infection. This can be caused by an abdominal injury, an underlying medical condition, or a treatment device, such as a dialysis catheter or feeding tube.

Peritonitis is a serious condition that needs immediate medical attention. Prompt intravenous (IV) antibiotics are needed to treat the infection. Surgery is sometimes necessary to remove infected tissue. The infection can spread and become life-threatening if it isn’t treated promptly

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Personality is the way of thinking, feeling and behaving that makes a person different from other people. An individual’s personality is influenced by experiences, environment (surroundings, life situations) and inherited characteristics. A personality disorder is a way of thinking, feeling and behaving that deviates from the expectations of the culture, causes distress or problems functioning, and lasts over time.1There are 10 specific types of personality disorders (such as borderline personality disorder). Common to all personality disorders is a long-term pattern of behavior and inner experience that differs significantly from what is expected. The pattern of experience and behavior begins by late adolescence or early adulthood, and causes distress or problems in functioning. Without treatment, the behavior and experience is inflexible and usually long-lasting. The pattern is seen in at least two of these areas:

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If your nose runs and your eyes water or you start sneezing and wheezing after petting or playing with a cat, you likely have a cat allergy. A cat allergy can contribute to constant allergy symptoms, as exposure can occur at work, school, day care or in other indoor environments, even if a cat is not present.

Cats produce multiple allergens (proteins that can cause allergy). These allergens are found on the fur and skin and in saliva. All cats produce allergens; studies have not shown that cats can be hypoallergenic (meaning that they don’t cause allergy). Homes with more than one cat have higher levels of cat allergens. Characteristics such as the length of a cat’s hair, its sex and the amount of time a cat spends indoors are not associated with cat allergen levels.Dust and pollen in a cat’s coat can also cause allergy symptoms. In those cases, the allergy is to the dust or pollen, not to the cat.

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Excessive loss of body water. Diseases of the gastrointestinal tract that cause vomiting or diarrhea may lead to dehydration. There are a number of other causes of dehydration including heat exposure, prolonged vigorous exercise, kidney disease, and medications that cause voiding (diuretics).

One clue to dehydration is a rapid drop in weight. A loss of over 10% (15 pounds in a person weighing 150 pounds) is considered severe.

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Phantom limb pain (PLP) refers to ongoing painful sensations that seem to be coming from the part of the limb that is no longer there. The limb is gone, but the pain is real.


The onset of this pain most often occurs soon after surgery. It can feel like a variety of things, such as burning, twisting, itching or pressure. It is often felt in fingers or toes. It is believed that nearly 80 percent of the amputee population worldwide has experienced this kind of pain.


The length of time this pain lasts differs from person to person. It can last from seconds to minutes, to hours, to days. For most people, PLP diminishes in both frequency and duration during the first six months, but many continue to experience some level of these sensations for years.


People are often reluctant to tell anyone that they are experiencing PLP or phantom limb sensations, for fear that they will be considered “crazy.” However, it is important to report these pains as soon as you begin to experience them so treatment can be started.

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Phenylketonuria (commonly known as PKU) is an inherited disorder that increases the levels of a substance called phenylalanine in the blood. Phenylalanine is a building block of proteins (an amino acid) that is obtained through the diet. It is found in all proteins and in some artificial sweeteners. If PKU is not treated, phenylalanine can build up to harmful levels in the body, causing intellectual disability and other serious health problems.The signs and symptoms of PKU vary from mild to severe. The most severe form of this disorder is known as classic PKU. Infants with classic PKU appear normal until they are a few months old. Without treatment, these children develop permanent intellectual disability. Seizures, delayed development, behavioral problems, and psychiatric disorders are also common. Untreated individuals may have a musty or mouse-like odor as a side effect of excess phenylalanine in the body. Children with classic PKU tend to have lighter skin and hair than unaffected family members and are also likely to have skin disorders such as eczema.


Less severe forms of this condition, sometimes called variant PKU and non-PKU hyperphenylalaninemia, have a smaller risk of brain damage. People with very mild cases may not require treatment with a low-phenylalanine diet.Babies born to mothers who have PKU and uncontrolled phenylalanine levels (women who no longer follow a low-phenylalanine diet) have a significant risk of intellectual disability because they are exposed to very high levels of phenylalanine before birth. These infants may also have a low birth weight and grow more slowly than other children. Other characteristic medical problems include heart defects or other heart problems, an abnormally small head size (microcephaly), and behavioral problems. Women with PKU and uncontrolled phenylalanine levels also have an increased risk of pregnancy loss.


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Pheochromocytoma (PCC) is the term used for a rare tumor that has grown in the adrenal glands. These tumors are usually benign, meaning they are not cancerous. Most cases involve only one adrenal gland, but it is possible for both to be involved.In rare cases, PCC can be cancerous. These malignant tumors will spread like other cancers and can cause serious complications.The condition causes the adrenal glands to pump out too much adrenaline and noradrenaline. These two hormones help keep the heart rate, blood pressure, and stress response in balance. They are also responsible for the body's "fight or flight" response.When the body contains too much of these compounds at one time, it goes into a reactive state as if it were in a constant state of high stress.PCC will always form on the inside of the adrenal glands. They are often grouped together with similar tumors called paragangliomas, which are tumors that grow on the outside of the glands. The tumors are different, but both alter the production of the adrenal glands


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A pilonidal (pie-low-NIE-dul) cyst is an abnormal pocket in the skin that usually contains hair and skin debris. A pilonidal cyst is almost always located near the tailbone at the top of the cleft of the buttocks.Pilonidal cysts usually occur when hair punctures the skin and then becomes embedded. If a pilonidal cyst becomes infected, the resulting abscess is often extremely painful. The cyst can be drained through a small incision or removed surgically.Pilonidal cysts most commonly occur in young men, and the problem has a tendency to recur. People who sit for prolonged periods of time, such as truck drivers, are at higher risk of developing a pilonidal cyst.

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Pineoblastoma is one of several different types of tumors that arise in the area of the pineal gland, requiring different therapies. The exact diagnosis is critical for choosing the correct therapy. Pineal tumors typically present with hydrocephalus, a buildup of fluid pressure within the brain

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Pink eye (conjunctivitis) is an inflammation or infection of the transparent membrane (conjunctiva) that lines your eyelid and covers the white part of your eyeball. When small blood vessels in the conjunctiva become inflamed, they're more visible. This is what causes the whites of your eyes to appear reddish or pink.

Pink eye is commonly caused by a bacterial or viral infection, an allergic reaction, or — in babies — an incompletely opened tear duct.Though pink eye can be irritating, it rarely affects your vision. Treatments can help ease the discomfort of pink eye. Because pink eye can be contagious, early diagnosis and treatment can help limit its spread.

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A pinworm infection is one of the most common types of human intestinal worm infections. Pinworms are tiny, narrow worms. They’re white in color and less than half an inch long. A pinworm infection, also known as enterobiasis or oxyuriasis, is the most common type of worm infection in humans in the United States, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

Pinworm infections can spread easily. They’re most common in children between the ages of 5 and 10, people who live in institutions, and those who have regular, close contact with individuals in these groups. An effective treatment for pinworm infections is medication, though reinfection is possible. Serious complications and long-term health effects are rare.


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Pituitary tumors are abnormal growths that develop in your pituitary gland. Some pituitary tumors result in too many of the hormones that regulate important functions of your body. Some pituitary tumors can cause your pituitary gland to produce lower levels of hormones.Most pituitary tumors are noncancerous (benign) growths (adenomas). Adenomas remain in your pituitary gland or surrounding tissues and don't spread to other parts of your body.There are various options for treating pituitary tumors, including removing the tumor, controlling its growth and managing your hormone levels with medications. Your doctor may recommend observation — or a ''wait and see'' approach.



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Pityriasis rosea is a rash that usually begins as a large circular or oval spot on your chest, abdomen or back. Called a herald patch, this spot can be up to 4 inches (10 centimeters) across.The herald patch is typically followed by smaller spots that sweep out from the middle of your body in a shape that resembles drooping pine-tree branches.Pityriasis (pit-ih-RIE-uh-sis) rosea can affect any age group. It most commonly occurs between the ages of 10 and 35. It usually goes away on its own within 10 weeks. Pityriasis rosea can cause itching. Treatment may help relieve the symptoms.


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Placentaaccreta happens when the placenta attaches too firmly to the uterine wall. Normally the placenta attaches to the uterine wall during pregnancy but detaches easily during childbirth. When accreta occurs, the blood vessels andother tissue from the placenta grow more deeply into the tissue of the uterus,which can cause bleeding during the third trimester and possibly dangerous hemorrhaging (blood loss) during delivery. If the placenta penetrates even further into the uterine wall, reaching the muscle, it is called placenta increta. If it grows all the way through the uterine wall, it is called placenta percreta.


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If you have placenta previa, it means that your placenta is lying unusually low in your uterus, next to or covering your cervix. The placenta is the pancake-shaped organ – normally located near the top of the uterus – that supplies your baby with nutrients through the umbilical cord.If you're found to have placenta previa early in pregnancy, it's not usually considered a problem. But if the placenta is still close to the cervix later in pregnancy, it can cause bleeding, which can lead to other complications and may mean that you'll need to deliver early. If you have placenta previa when it's time to deliver your baby, you'll need to have a cesarean section.


If the placenta covers the cervix completely, it's called a complete or total previa. If it's right on the border of the cervix, it's called a marginal previa. (You may also hear the term "partial previa," which refers to a placenta that covers part of the cervical opening once the cervix starts to dilate.) If the edge of the placenta is within two centimeters of the cervix but not bordering it, it's called a low-lying placenta.The location of your placenta will be checked during your mid-pregnancy ultrasound exam (usually done between 16 to 20 weeks) and again later if necessary.


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A placental abruption is a serious condition in which the placenta partially or completely separates from your uterus before your baby's born.The condition can deprive your baby of oxygen and nutrients, and cause severe bleeding that can be dangerous to you both. A placental abruption also increases the risk that your baby will have growth problems (if the abruption is small and goes unnoticed), be born prematurely, or be stillborn.Placental abruption happens in about one in 150 pregnancies. It's most common in the third trimester but can happen any time after 20 weeks.


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Pneumonitis is a general term for inflammation of lung tissue. Chronic inflammation of lung tissue can lead to irreversible scarring (pulmonary fibrosis). Pneumonitis is not a specific disease but a sign of an underlying problem.Acute chemical pneumonitis causes swelling of the lung tissue, movement of fluid into the air spaces in the lung and reduced ability to absorb oxygen and remove carbon dioxide. In severe cases, death may result from hypoxia.Chronic pneumonitis may follow low levels of exposure to the irritant over long periods of time, causing inflammation which may lead to fibrosis, resulting in decreased gas exchange and stiffening of the lung, and ultimately leading to respiratory failure and death.


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A pneumothorax (noo-moe-THOR-aks) is a collapsed lung. A pneumothorax occurs when air leaks into the space between your lung and chest wall. This air pushes on the outside of your lung and makes it collapse. In most cases, only a portion of the lung collapses.A pneumothorax can be caused by a blunt or penetrating chest injury, certain medical procedures, or damage from underlying lung disease. Or it may occur for no obvious reason. Symptoms usually include sudden chest pain and shortness of breath. On some occasions, a collapsed lung can be a life-threatening event.Treatment for a pneumothorax usually involves inserting a flexible tube or needle between the ribs to remove the excess air. However, a small pneumothorax may heal on its own.

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Inflammation of the skin, either due to an inherent skin defect, direct contact with an irritating substance, or to an allergic reaction. Symptoms of dermatitis include redness, itching, and in some cases blistering.

Eczema can be particularly severe and difficult to treat once it is established. Treatment is two-fold. People who suffer from dermatitis must identify and avoid substances that cause attacks. During attacks they may use topical treatments, such as steroid creams.

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Polycythemia vera (pol-e-sy-THEE-me-uh VEER-uh) is a slow-growing blood cancer in which your bone marrow makes too many red blood cells. These excess cells thicken your blood, slowing its flow. They also cause complications, such as blood clots, which can lead to a heart attack or stroke.


Polycythemia vera isn't common. It usually develops slowly, and you might have it for years without knowing. Often the condition is found during a blood test done for another reason.


Without treatment, polycythemia vera can be life-threatening. But proper medical care can help ease signs, symptoms and complications of this disease. Over time, in some cases there's a risk of progressing to more-serious blood cancers, such as myelofibrosis or acute leukemia.

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Polymyalgia rheumatica (sometimes referred to as PMR) is a common cause of widespread aching and stiffness that affects adults over the age of 50, especially Caucasians. Because polymyalgia rheumatica does not often cause swollen joints, it may be hard to recognize. It may occur with another health problem, giant cell arteritis.


The average age when symptoms start is 70, so people who have PMR may be in their 80s or even older. The disease affects women somewhat more often than men. It is more frequent in whites than nonwhites, but all races can get PMR.

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Polymyositis is a disease of muscle featuring inflammation of the muscle fibers. The cause of the disease is not known. It begins when white blood cells, the immune cells of inflammation, spontaneously invade muscles. The muscles affected are typically those closest to the trunk or torso. This results in weakness that can be severe. Polymyositis is a chronic illness featuring progressive muscle weakness with periods of increased symptoms, called flares or relapses, and minimal or no symptoms, known as remissions.


Polymyositis is slightly more common in females. It affects all age groups, although its onset is most common in middle childhood and in the 20s. Polymyositis occurs throughout the world. Polymyositis can be associated with a characteristic skin rash and is then referred to as "dermatomyositis." Dermatomyositis in children is referred to as juvenile dermatomyositis. "Amyopathic dermatomyositis" is the term used to describe people who have skin changes compatible with dermatomyositis but do not have diseased muscle involvement.


Polymyositis can also affect other areas of the body and is, therefore, referred to as a systemic illness. Occasionally, it is associated with cancer or with other diseases of connective tissue (such as systemic lupus erythematosus, scleroderma, and rheumatoid arthritis). Depending on which other diseases it is associated with, it may be referred to as an "overlap syndrome" or "mixed connective tissue disease."

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Postherpetic neuralgia (also termed PHN) is a condition of recurring or persistent pain in an area of the body that has undergone an outbreak of herpes zoster virus (HZ), also known as the varicella zoster virus, commonly termed shingles. It usually begins after shingles lesions (blisters) begin to crust over and heal but may occur in some patients who do not produce lesions. Some investigators suggest the pain has to be present for three months to be termed PHN.


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Postpartum preeclampsia is a rare condition that can develop soon after birth (usually within the first 48 to 72 hours after delivery) and is marked by high blood pressure and excess protein in the urine. In rare cases, preeclampsia onset can be delayed up to about one month postpartum; it is usually called late postpartum preeclampsia if the onset is more than 48 hours postpartum. "It takes time for the uterus to shed its lining after birth, so this process may be behind the delay that's sometimes seen in late onset preeclampsia after delivery," says James N. Martin, M.D., past president of the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. It's also possible this condition begins during pregnancy but doesn't show signs or symptoms until after the baby has arrived.


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Postpartum thyroiditis is an exacerbation of an underlying autoimmune thyroiditis, aggravated by the immunological rebound that follows the partial immunosuppression of pregnancy (1–3). Women who express human leukocyte antigen haplotypes DR-3, DR-4, and DR-5 have an increased risk for postpartum thyroiditis. In women who develop postpartum thyroiditis, CD4+/CD8+ and CD4 + 2H4+ ratios are elevated throughout pregnancy and the postpartum (4). Histologically, thyroid aspirates reveal either a lymphocytic infiltrate or diffuse destruction, changes similar to those seen in both Hashimoto’s thyroiditis (2, 3, 5) and painless sporadic silent thyroiditis (6). In essence, the immunological rebound that follows the end of pregnancy precipitates the clinical expression of Hashimoto’s disease, which before pregnancy was clinically silent

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The literature lacks consensus regarding the nomenclature applicable to the development of new health problems in persons who previously had acute paralytic poliomyelitis, with frequently used terms including "late effects of polio" (LEoP), "postpolio syndrome" (PPS) and "postpolio muscular atrophy." PPS is typically characterized as a sub-category of LEoP. [1]


PPS is a neurologic disorder characterized by new and progressive muscular weakness, pain, and fatigue many years after the acute paralytic polio. Halstead introduced the term "post-polio syndrome" in 1986, and he published revised criteria for diagnosing PPS in 1991, in which new muscle weakness was introduced as an obligatory criterion.

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Detoxification is one of the more widely used treatments and concepts in alternative medicine. It is based on the principle that illnesses can be caused by the accumulation of toxic substances (toxins) in the body. Eliminating existing toxins and avoiding new toxins are essential parts of the healing process. Detoxification utilizes a variety of tests and techniques.

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After a patient has had a total proctocolectomy (removal by surgery of the large intestine and rectum), a procedure called ileal pouch-anal anastomosis (IPAA) is performed. In an IPAA, the ileum, or lowest part of the small intestine, is connected to the anus to create a structure (pouch) that can store and eliminate stools.


The surgeon creates a J-pouch (which resembles the letter J) to provide for the storage area. Other pouch shapes (S and K) are also possible. The pouch helps improve the patient’s quality of life and reduces the risk of growths that could develop into cancer. However, after this surgery, some patients may get pouchitis.


Pouchitis is an inflammation (swelling) of the pouch that occurs when the pouch becomes irritated and inflamed. The inflammation can cause increased bowel frequency (having to go to the bathroom more often), abdominal cramping or bloating, lower abdominal pain, or sometimes blood in the stool. This condition should be evaluated and managed by an experienced gastroenterologist.

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Precocious puberty is when a child's body begins changing into that of an adult (puberty) too soon. Puberty that begins before age 8 in girls and before age 9 in boys is considered precocious puberty.


Puberty includes rapid growth of bones and muscles, changes in body shape and size, and development of the body's ability to reproduce.


The cause of precocious puberty often can't be found. Rarely, certain conditions, such as infections, hormone disorders, tumors, brain abnormalities or injuries, may cause precocious puberty. Treatment for precocious puberty typically includes medication to delay further development.

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Slightly elevated blood pressure is known as prehypertension. Prehypertension will likely turn into high blood pressure (hypertension) unless you make lifestyle changes, such as getting more exercise and eating healthier foods. Both prehypertension and high blood pressure increase your risk of heart attack, stroke and heart failure.


A blood pressure reading has two numbers. The first, or upper, number measures the pressure in your arteries when your heart beats (systolic pressure). The second, or lower, number measures the pressure in your arteries between beats (diastolic pressure). Prehypertension is a systolic pressure from 120 to 139 millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) or a diastolic pressure from 80 to 89 mm Hg.


Weight loss, exercise and other healthy lifestyle changes can often control prehypertension, and set the stage for a lifetime of better health.

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A premature baby is one who is born too early, before 37 weeks. Premature babies may have more health problems and may need to stay in the hospital longer than babies born later. 


They also may have long-term health problems that can affect their whole lives. About 1 in 10 babies is born prematurely each year in the United States. 


The earlier in pregnancy a baby is born, the more likely he is to have health problems. Some premature babies have to spend time in a hospital’s neonatal intensive care unit (also called NICU). This is the part of a hospital that takes care of sick newborns. But thanks to advances in medical care, even babies born very prematurely are more likely to survive today than ever before.

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Premature ejaculation is uncontrolled ejaculation either before or shortly after sexual penetration. It happens with minimal sexual stimulation and before the person wishes. It may result in unsatisfactory sex for both partners. This can increase the anxiety that may add to the problem. It is one of the most common forms of male sexual dysfunction. It has probably affected every man at some point in his life.


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Premature ovarian failure — also known as primary ovarian insufficiency — is a loss of normal function of your ovaries before age 40. If your ovaries fail, they don't produce normal amounts of the hormone estrogen or release eggs regularly. Infertility is a common result.


Premature ovarian failure is sometimes referred to as premature menopause, but the two conditions aren't the same. Women with premature ovarian failure can have irregular or occasional periods for years and might even become pregnant. Women with premature menopause stop having periods and can't become pregnant.


Restoring estrogen levels in women with premature ovarian failure helps prevent some complications, such as osteoporosis, that occur as a result of low estrogen.

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Abusing some prescription drugs can lead to addiction. These include opioids, sedatives, tranquilizers, and stimulants.


Every medicine has some risk of side effects. Doctors take this into account when prescribing medicines. People who abuse these drugs may not understand the risks. The medicines may not be safe for them, especially at higher doses or when taken with other medicines.

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Premature labor is also called preterm labor. It’s when your body starts getting ready for birth too early in your pregnancy. Labor is premature if it starts more than three weeks before your due date.

Premature labor can lead to an early birth. But the good news is that doctors can do a lot to delay an early delivery. The longer your baby gets to grow inside you -- right up to your due date -- the less likely he or she is to have problems after birth.


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Child development entails the biological, psychological and emotional changes that occur in human beings between birth and the end of adolescence, as the individual progresses from dependency to increasing autonomy. It is a continuous process with a predictable sequence, yet having a unique course for every child. It does not progress at the same rate and each stage is affected by the preceding developmental experiences. Because these developmental changes may be strongly influenced by genetic factors and events during prenatal life, genetics and prenatal development are usually included as part of the study of child development. Related terms include developmental psychology, referring to development throughout the lifespan, and pediatrics, the branch of medicine relating to the care of children. Developmental change may occur as a result of genetically-controlled processes known as maturation,[1] or as a result of environmental factors and learning, but most commonly involves an interaction between the two. It may also occur as a result of human nature and our ability to learn from our environment.


There are various definitions of periods in a child's development, since each period is a continuum with individual differences regarding start and ending. Some age-related development periods and examples of defined intervals are: newborn (ages 0–4 weeks); infant (ages 4 weeks – 1 year); toddler (ages 1–3 years); preschooler (ages 4–6 years); school-aged child (ages 6–12 years); adolescent (ages 13–18).[2]


Promoting child development through parental training, among other factors, promotes excellent rates of child development.[3] Parents play a large role in a child's life, socialization, and development. Having multiple parents can add stability to the child's life and therefore encourage healthy development.[4] Another influential factor in a child's development is the quality of their care. Child care programs present a critical opportunity for the promotion of child development.


The optimal development of children is considered vital to society and so it is important to understand the social, cognitive, emotional, and educational development of children. Increased research and interest in this field has resulted in new theories and strategies, with specific regard to practice that promotes development within the school system. There are also some theories that seek to describe a sequence of states that compose child developmen

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Proctitis is an inflammation of the lining of the rectum. The rectum is a muscular tube that's connected to the end of your colon. Stool passes through the rectum on its way out of the body.

Proctitis can cause rectal pain and the continuous sensation that you need to have a bowel movement. Proctitis symptoms can be short-lived, or they can become chronic.

Proctitis is common in people who have inflammatory bowel diseases. Sexually transmitted infections are another frequent cause. Proctitis also can be a side effect of radiation therapy for certain cancers.

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A prolactinoma is a benign tumor (called an adenoma) of the pituitary gland. A prolactinoma produces an excessive amount of the hormone prolactin. Prolactin is a natural hormone which supports a woman's normal lactation, which is the secretion of milk by the mammary glands of the breast. Prolactinomas are the most common type of pituitary tumor. Symptoms of prolactinoma are caused by pressure of the tumor on surrounding tissues or by excessive release of prolactin from the tumor into the blood (causing a condition known as hyperprolactinemia).

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Pseudobulbar affect (PBA) is a condition that’s characterized by episodes of sudden uncontrollable and inappropriate laughing or crying. Pseudobulbar affect typically occurs in people with certain neurological conditions or injuries, which might affect the way the brain controls emotion.

If you have pseudobulbar affect you'll experience emotions normally, but you'll sometimes express them in an exaggerated or inappropriate way. As a result, the condition can be embarrassing and disruptive to your daily life.

Pseudobulbar affect often goes undiagnosed or is mistaken for mood disorders. Once diagnosed, however, pseudobulbar affect can be managed with medication.

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Pseudogout is a type of inflammation of joints (arthritis) that is caused by deposits of crystals, called calcium pyrophosphate, in and around the joints. Pseudogout literally means "false gout." It derives its name from its similarity to gout.

Pseudogout has many similarities to true gout, which also can cause arthritis. However, the crystal that incites the inflammation of gout is monosodium urate. The crystals that cause pseudogout and gout each have distinct appearances when joint fluid containing them is viewed under a microscope. This makes it possible to precisely identify the cause of the joint inflammation when joint fluid is available.

Pseudogout has been reported to occasionally coexist with gout. This means that the two types of crystals can sometimes be found in the same joint fluid. Researchers have also noted that the cartilage of patients who had both forms of crystals in their joint fluid was often visibly calcified, as seen on X-ray images.

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Pseudomembranous colitis (PMC) is inflammation in your colon that happens when there's too much of certain bacteria in your system. The most common bacterium that causes PMC isClostridium difficile, or C. diff.

PMC is also called antibiotic-associated colitis or C. difficilecolitis. Most of the time, it's a side effect of taking antibiotics.

People in hospitals or nursing homes also can get PMC, especially if they've just had surgery or are receiving treatment for cancer.

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Pseudotumor cerebri is a condition in which the pressure around your brain increases, causing headaches and vision problems. The name means “false brain tumor” because its symptoms are similar to those caused by brain tumors. It’s also known as idiopathic intracranial hypertension. This condition is treatable, but it can return in some cases.

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Pulmonary atresia is a form of heart disease in which the pulmonary valve does not form properly. It is present from birth (congenital heart disease). The pulmonary valve is an opening on the right side of the heart that regulates blood flow from the right ventricle (right side pumping chamber) to the lungs.


In pulmonary atresia, a solid sheet of tissue forms where the valve opening should be, and the valve stays closed. Because of this defect, blood from the right side of the heart cannot go to the lungs to pick up oxygen.

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Pulmonary valve stenosis is a condition in which a deformity on or near your pulmonary valve narrows the pulmonary valve opening and slows the blood flow. The pulmonary valve is located between the lower right heart chamber (right ventricle) and the pulmonary arteries. Adults occasionally have pulmonary valve stenosis as a complication of another illness, but mostly, pulmonary valve stenosis develops before birth as a congenital heart defect.


Pulmonary valve stenosis ranges from mild and without symptoms to severe. Mild pulmonary stenosis doesn't usually worsen over time, but moderate and severe cases may worsen and require surgery. Fortunately, treatment is generally highly successful, and most people with pulmonary valve stenosis can expect to lead normal lives.

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Pyloric stenosis is an uncommon condition in infants that blocks food from entering the small intestine.Normally, a muscular valve (pylorus) between the stomach and small intestine holds food in the stomach until it is ready for the next stage in the digestive process. In pyloric stenosis, the pylorus muscles thicken and become abnormally large, blocking food from reaching the small intestine.Pyloric stenosis can lead to forceful vomiting, dehydration and weight loss. Babies with pyloric stenosis may seem to be hungry all the time.


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Radiation is used in the treatment of cancer and comes with risks. Radiation enteritis is one of these risks. This condition is caused by the inflammation of your small and/or large intestine from radiation treatments in your stomach, sexual organs, or rectum. Radiation enteritis can cause the loss of both intestinal cells and tissue.There are two types of radiation enteritis: acute and chronic. Acute enteritis develops while you are getting radiation treatments. The condition will last until about eight weeks after your last radiation treatment. Chronic enteritis can cause symptoms that last for months to years after you complete your radiation treatment.




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Radiation sickness is damage to your body caused by a large dose of radiation often received over a short period of time (acute). The amount of radiation absorbed by the body — the absorbed dose — determines how sick you'll be.Radiation sickness is also called acute radiation sickness, acute radiation syndrome or radiation poisoning. Common exposures to low-dose radiation, such as X-ray or CT examinations, don't cause radiation sickness.Although radiation sickness is serious and often fatal, it's rare. Since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, during World War II, most cases of radiation sickness have occurred after nuclear industrial accidents, such as the 1986 fire that damaged the nuclear power plant at Chernobyl, Ukraine.


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Type 2 diabetes, once known as adult-onset or noninsulin-dependent diabetes, is a chronic condition that affects the way your body metabolizes sugar (glucose), your body's important source of fuel.


With type 2 diabetes, your body either resists the effects of insulin — a hormone that regulates the movement of sugar into your cells — or doesn't produce enough insulin to maintain a normal glucose level.

More common in adults, type 2 diabetes increasingly affects children as childhood obesity increases. There's no cure for type 2 diabetes, but you may be able to manage the condition by eating well, exercising and maintaining a healthy weight. If diet and exercise aren't enough to manage your blood sugar well, you also may need diabetes medications or insulin therapy.


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Ramsay Hunt syndrome happens when shingles affects nerves in your face close to either one of your ears. Shingles affecting either ear is a condition caused by a virus called herpes zoster oticus. The general varicella-zoster virus also causes chicken pox, which is most common in children. If you’ve had chicken pox in your life, the virus can reactivate later in your life and cause shingles. Both shingles and chicken pox are most recognizable by a rash that appears in the affected area of the body. Unlike chicken pox, a shingles rash near the facial nerves by your ears can cause other complications, including facial paralysis and ear pain. When this happens, it’s called Ramsay Hunt syndrome. If you get a rash on your face and also start noticing symptoms such as facial muscle weakness, see your doctor as soon as you can. Early treatment can help make sure you don’t experience any complications from Ramsay Hunt syndrome.

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The rectum is the last several inches of the large intestine. It starts at the end of the final segment of your colon and ends when it reaches the short, narrow passage leading to the anus.Cancer inside the rectum (rectal cancer) and cancer inside the colon (colon cancer) are often referred to together as "colorectal cancer."While rectal and colon cancers are similar in many ways, their treatments are quite different. This is mainly because the rectum sits in a tight space, barely separated from other organs and structures in the pelvic cavity. As a result, complete surgical removal of rectal cancer is challenging and highly complex. Additional treatment is often needed before or after surgery — or both — to reduce the chance that the cancer will return.In the past, long-term survival was uncommon for people with rectal cancer, even after extensive treatment. Thanks to treatment advances over the past 30 years, rectal cancer can now, in many cases, be cured.


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This patient education piece is designed to help improve patients’ understanding regarding rectal prolapse, specifically its presentation, evaluation and treatment. This information may also be useful to the friends, families, and caregivers of patients dealing with rectal prolapse. Treatment of this condition may often require surgery, and this patient education material is intended for patients with rectal prolapse who are considering or have been recommended surgery. It will address why surgery may have been recommended, what the various treatment options are, what it involves and how it may help patients.


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A rectovaginal fistula (RVF) is an epithelial-lined tract between the rectum and vagina. For thousands of years, women simply tolerated the distressing symptoms generated by RVFs. Today, there is no need for such tolerance, because most RVFs can be surgically corrected via a number of approaches. [1] A small percentage, however, cannot be corrected, because of patient comorbidity or disease-related factors; in these cases, patients can be helped only by fecal diversion. [2]  This article discusses only acquired RVFs. Most RVFs are located at or just above the dentate line. Fistulas below the dentate line are not true RVFs but, rather, anovaginal fistulas; the treatment required for these differs from that required for RVFs.

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Renal refers to anything related to the kidneys. Renal arteries carry blood from the heart to the kidneys. They branch directly from the aorta (the main artery coming off the heart) on either side and extend to each kidney. These arteries take a very large volume of blood to the kidneys to be filtered The heart pumps out approximately 5 liters of blood per minute, and about 1-1.5 liters (25%) of the total volume of blood pumped by the heart passes through the kidneys every minute.

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Retinal diseases vary widely, but most of them cause visual symptoms. Retinal diseases can affect any part of your retina, a thin layer of tissue on the inside back wall of your eye.The retina contains millions of light-sensitive cells (rods and cones) and other nerve cells that receive and organize visual information. Your retina sends this information to your brain through your optic nerve, enabling you to see.Treatment is available for some retinal diseases. Depending on your condition, treatment goals may be to stop or slow the disease and preserve, improve or restore your vision. Untreated, some retinal diseases can cause severe vision loss or blindness.
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Cancer starts when cells begin to grow out of control. Cells in nearly any part of the body can become cancer, and can spread to other areas of the body. To learn more about how cancers start and spread, see What Is Cancer? For information about the differences between childhood cancers and adult cancers, see Cancer in Children. Retinoblastoma is a cancer that starts in the retina, the very back part of the eye. It is the most common type of eye cancer in children. Rarely, children can have other kinds of eye cancer, such as medulloepithelioma, which is described briefly below, or melanoma.To understand retinoblastoma, it helps to know about the parts of the eye and how they work.


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A retractile testicle is a testicle that may move back and forth between the scrotum and the groin. When the retractile testicle is residing in the groin, it might be easily guided by hand into its proper position in the scrotum — the bag of skin hanging behind the penis — during a physical exam.For most boys, the problem of a retractile testicle goes away sometime before or during puberty. The testicle moves to its correct location in the scrotum and stays there permanently.In fewer than 5 percent of cases, the retractile testicle remains in the groin and is no longer movable. When this happens, the condition is called an ascending testicle or an acquired undescended testicle.


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Ejaculation is the ejection of semen out of the urethra (passageway inside the penis) when a man has an orgasm. Under normal circumstances, ejaculation propels semen forward through a man's urethra and out the tip of his penis. This is because a tiny sphincter (circular muscle) at the entrance to the bladder shuts the opening to the bladder and prevents semen from entering. Retrograde ejaculation is when the semen travels backwards into the bladder.


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Rett syndrome is a rare, severe neurological disorder that affects mostly girls. It's usually discovered in the first two years of life, and a child's diagnosis with Rett syndrome can feel overwhelming. Although there's no cure, early identification and treatment may help girls and families who are affected by Rett syndrome. In the past, it was felt to be part of the Autism Spectrum Disorder. We now know that it is mostly genetically based.

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Rheumatic fever is one of the complications associated with strep throat. It’s a relatively serious illness that can cause stroke, permanent damage to your heart, and death if it’s left untreated. The condition usually appears in children between the ages of 5 and 15, even though older children and adults have been known to contract the fever as well. It’s still common in places like sub-Saharan Africa, south central Asia, and certain populations in Australia and New Zealand.


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The rotator cuff is a group of muscles and tendons that surround the shoulder joint, keeping the head of your upper arm bone firmly within the shallow socket of the shoulder. A rotator cuff injury can cause a dull ache in the shoulder, which often worsens when you try to sleep on the involved side.Rotator cuff injuries occur most often in people who repeatedly perform overhead motions in their jobs or sports. Examples include painters, carpenters, and people who play baseball or tennis. The risk of rotator cuff injury also increases with age.Many people recover from rotator cuff disease with physical therapy exercises that improve flexibility and strength of the muscles surrounding the shoulder joint.Sometimes, rotator cuff tears may occur as a result of a single injury. In those circumstances, medical care should be provided as soon as possible. Extensive rotator cuff tears may require surgical repair, transfer of alternative tendons or joint replacement


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Rumination syndrome, or Merycism, is a rare disorder that affects children and some adults. If your child has this condition, he or she will usually eat meals normally. But after about an hour or two, undigested food comes back up into his or her mouth from the esophagus. Your child will either rechew and reswallow the food, or spit it out. Typically this happens at every meal, day after day. Rumination is a reflex, not a conscious decision.


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The spleen is an organ of the lymphatic system located on the left side of your stomach (abdomen) under the rib cage and diaphragm in a region that is referred to as the left upper quadrant. In humans the spleen is about the size of a fist and its primary roles are filtering the body’s blood and helps to fight infection. It also serves a role in storing and releasing certain types of immune cells that mediate tissue inflammation. [1]Rupturing a spleen describes an emergency situation in which your spleen has developed a disruption in its surface or blood supply. This is serious condition that can occur during a direct blow or trauma and without emergency treatment a ruptured spleen can cause life threatening internal bleeding. [2]


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Sacroiliitis (say-kroe-il-e-I-tis) is an inflammation of one or both of your sacroiliac joints — situated where your lower spine and pelvis connect. Sacroiliitis can cause pain in your buttocks or lower back, and can extend down one or both legs. Prolonged standing or stair climbing can worsen the pain.


Sacroiliitis can be difficult to diagnose, because it can be mistaken for other causes of low back pain. It's been linked to a group of diseases that cause inflammatory arthritis of the spine. Treatment might involve physical therapy and medications.

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Salivary gland tumors are rare types of tumors that begin in the salivary glands.


Salivary gland tumors can begin in any of the salivary glands in your mouth, neck or throat. Salivary glands make saliva, which aids in digestion, keeps your mouth moist and supports healthy teeth.


You have three pairs of major salivary glands under and behind your jaw — parotid, sublingual and submandibular. Many other tiny salivary glands are in your lips, inside your cheeks, and throughout your mouth and throat.


Salivary gland tumors most commonly occur in the parotid gland, accounting for nearly 85 percent of all salivary gland tumors. Approximately 25 percent of parotid tumors are cancerous (malignant).


Treatment for salivary gland tumors often involves surgery. Treatments for salivary gland tumors may also include radiation therapy and chemotherapy.

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Salmonella infection (salmonellosis) is a common bacterial disease that affects the intestinal tract. Salmonella bacteria typically live in animal and human intestines and are shed through feces. Humans become infected most frequently through contaminated water or food.


Typically, people with salmonella infection have no symptoms. Others develop diarrhea, fever and abdominal cramps within eight to 72 hours. Most healthy people recover within a few days without specific treatment.


In some cases, the diarrhea associated with salmonella infection can be so dehydrating as to require prompt medical attention. Life-threatening complications also may develop if the infection spreads beyond your intestines. Your risk of acquiring salmonella infection is higher if you travel to countries with poor sanitation.

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Scarlet fever is a bacterial infection caused by group A Streptococcus bacteria. This illness usually occurs in a few people (about 10%) who have strep throat (streptococcal pharyngitis) and occasionally streptococcal skin infections or even wound infections. Scarlet fever is also known as scarlatina in the older articles; group A Streptococcus (for example, Streptococcus pyogenes) is often shortened to read as "group A strep" or group A beta-hemolytic streptococci (GABHS). Scarlet fever is mainly known for its sunburned-skin-colored sandpaper-like skin rash that is associated with fever.


Outbreaks occur. England reported a 50-year high number of individuals diagnosed with the disease (over 19,206) in 2016

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Schizoaffective disorder is a mental illness that involves persistent psychotic symptoms, like hallucinations or delusions, occurring together with mood problems of depressive, manic, or mixed episodes. The term schizoaffective was first used in 1933 by Jacob Kasanin and has been included in every edition of the mental health diagnostic manual, called the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), since 1952. Statistics on how often this condition occurs range from 0.32% in the general United States population up to as much as 9% of psychiatrically hospitalized people. Schizoaffective disorder is thought to occur at least as often as schizophrenia and less often than 

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Schizoid personality disorder is an uncommon condition in which people avoid social activities and consistently shy away from interaction with others. They also have a limited range of emotional expression.


If you have schizoid personality disorder, you may be seen as a loner or dismissive of others, and you may lack the desire or skill to form close personal relationships. Because you don't tend to show emotion, you may appear as though you don't care about others or what's going on around you.


The cause of schizoid personality disorder is unknown. Talk therapy, and in some cases medications, can help.

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People with schizotypal personality disorder are often described as odd or eccentric and usually have few, if any, close relationships. They generally don't understand how relationships form or the impact of their behavior on others. They may also misinterpret others' motivations and behaviors and develop significant distrust of others.


These problems may lead to severe anxiety and a tendency to turn inward in social situations, as the person with schizotypal personality disorder responds inappropriately to social cues and holds peculiar beliefs.


Schizotypal personality disorder typically is diagnosed in early adulthood and is likely to endure, though treatment, such as medications and therapy, can improve symptoms.

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Sclerosing mesenteritis, also called mesenteric panniculitis, occurs when the tissue (mesentery) that holds the small intestines in place becomes inflamed and forms scar tissue. Sclerosing mesenteritis is rare, and it's not clear what causes it.


Sclerosing mesenteritis can cause abdominal pain, vomiting, bloating, diarrhea and fever. But some people experience no signs and symptoms and may never need treatment.


In rare cases, scar tissue formed by sclerosing mesenteritis can block food from moving through your digestive tract. In this case, you may need surgery.

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Scorpions use their sting to capture prey and to defend themselves. They hunt at night and will not sting unless provoked or they feel threatened. All scorpions use their stings as a defense mechanism or a weapon to incapacitate prey. But the potency to humans of stings varies, depending on the scorpion species. One thing that all scorpions have in common is that the sting possesses venom, which usually is neurotoxic in nature.






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The scrotum contains the male testes, the two male sex organs that produce and store semen as well as the hormone testosterone. A scrotal mass is a lump or bulge that can be felt in the scrotum, and may result from a variety of factors There are several kinds of scrotal masses:


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Seborrheic (seb-o-REE-ik) dermatitis is a common skin condition that mainly affects your scalp. It causes scaly patches, red skin and stubborn dandruff. Seborrheic dermatitis can also affect oily areas of the body, such as the face, sides of the nose, eyebrows, ears, eyelids and chest. Seborrheic dermatitis may go away without treatment. Or you may need many repeated treatments before the symptoms go away. And they may return later. Daily cleansing with a gentle soap and shampoo can help reduce oiliness and dead skin buildup.Seborrheic dermatitis is also called dandruff, seborrheic eczema and seborrheic psoriasis. For infants, the condition is known as cradle cap and causes crusty, scaly patches on the scalp.


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Seborrheic keratosis (seb-o-REE-ik ker-uh-TOE-sis) is one of the most common noncancerous skin growths in older adults.A seborrheic keratosis usually appears as a brown, black or light tan growth on the face, chest, shoulders or back. The growth has a waxy, scaly, slightly elevated appearance. Seborrheic keratoses don't become cancerous and aren't thought to be related to sun exposure, but they can look like skin cancer. Seborrheic keratoses are normally painless and require no treatment. You may decide to have them removed if they become irritated by clothing or for cosmetic reasons.

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The best way to understand the way that skin discoloration occurs is to understand how the skin gets and maintains its color. The epidermis, the outer layer of your skin, contains a bunch of cells called melanocytes. These cells have many functions, but one of their main jobs is to protect the skin. When it comes to protecting the skin from the sun, the melanocytes do so by darkening it with a pigment called melanin.


Melanin is responsible for making the skin look darker when you are exposed to the sun, but the body, for some reason, will either stop producing melanin in specific areas of the skin, or put its production into overdrive. Sometimes the skin discoloration can affect the entire body, a specific part of the body, or it can occur in just a few random places on the skin

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Selective IgA deficiency is one of the most common types of PI. These individuals lack IgA, but usually have normal amounts of other immunoglobulins (antibodies). Many people go undiagnosed because they are never sick enough to be seen by a doctor, while others may develop a variety of severe problems.


Selective IgA Deficiency

IgA protects the body at surfaces that come in contact with the environment. These sites are the mucosal surfaces—mouth, ears, sinuses, nose, throat, airways within the lungs, gastrointestinal tract, eyes, and genitals.


IgA antibodies are transported in secretions to these mucosal surfaces and play a role in protecting them from infection, which is why IgA is known as a secretory antibody. Because the area of a person's mucosal surfaces is equal to 1.5 tennis courts, the importance of IgA in protecting these surfaces cannot be overstated.


Although people with selective IgA deficiency do not produce IgA, they do produce all the other immunoglobulins. In addition, the other aspects of their immune systems function properly.


The causes of selective IgA deficiency remain unknown. It is likely there are a variety of causes that vary from person to person.


Low serum IgA, like absent serum IgA, is relatively common. Most people with low serum IgA have no apparent illness; others have symptoms similar to 


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Nonsuicidal self-injury, often simply called self-injury, is the act of deliberately harming the surface of your own body, such as cutting or burning yourself. It's typically not meant as a suicide attempt. Rather, this type of self-injury is an unhealthy way to cope with emotional pain, intense anger and frustration. While self-injury may bring a momentary sense of calm and a release of tension, it's usually followed by guilt and shame and the return of painful emotions. Although life-threatening injuries are usually not intended, with self-injury comes the possibility of more serious and even fatal self-aggressive actions.


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A separated shoulder is an injury to the ligaments that hold your collarbone (clavicle) to your shoulder blade. In a mild separated shoulder, the ligaments might just be stretched. In severe injuries, ligaments might be torn. In most people, a separated shoulder doesn't usually require surgery. Instead, conservative treatment — such as rest, ice and pain relievers — is often enough to relieve the pain. Most people regain full shoulder function within a few weeks after having a separated shoulder.


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Septic arthritis is also known as infectious arthritis, and is usually caused by bacteria. It can also be caused by a virus or fungus. The condition is an inflammation of a joint that's caused by infection. Typically, septic arthritis affects one large joint in the body, such as the knee or hip. Less frequently, septic arthritis can affect multiple joints.



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Serotonin syndrome occurs when you take medications that cause high levels of the chemical serotonin to accumulate in your body.Serotonin syndrome can occur when you increase the dose of such a drug or add a new drug to your regimen. Certain illegal drugs and dietary supplements also are associated with serotonin syndrome.Serotonin is a chemical your body produces that's needed for your nerve cells and brain to function. But too much serotonin causes symptoms that can range from mild (shivering and diarrhea) to severe (muscle rigidity, fever and seizures). Severe serotonin syndrome can be fatal if not treated. Milder forms of serotonin syndrome may go away within a day of stopping the medications that cause symptoms and, sometimes, taking drugs that block serotonin

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Shigellosis is an infectious disease caused by a group of bacteria called Shigella (shih-GEHL-uh). Most who are infected with Shigella develop diarrhea, fever, and stomach cramps starting a day or two after they are exposed to the bacteria. Shigellosis usually resolves in 5 to 7 days. Some people who are infected may have no symptoms at all, but may still pass the Shigella bacteria to others. The spread of Shigella can be stopped by frequent and careful handwashing with soap and taking other hygiene measures.


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The colon is a long tube-like structure approximately 6 feet in length that stores and then eliminates waste material left over after digestion of food in the small intestine takes place. It is thought that pressure within the colon causes bulging pockets of tissue (sacs) that push out from the colonic walls as a person ages. A small bulging sac pushing outward from the colon wall is called a diverticulum. More than one bulging sac is referred to in the plural as diverticula. Diverticula can occur throughout the colon but are most common near the end of the left colon, referred to as the sigmoid colon, in Western countries. In Asia, the diverticula occur mostly on the right side of the colon. The condition of having these diverticula in the colon is called diverticulosis.


Diverticula are common in the Western world but are rare in areas such as Asia and Africa. Diverticula increase with age. They are uncommon before the age of 40, but are seen in more than 74% of people over the age of 80 years in the U.S. A person with diverticulosis usually has few or no symptoms. The most common symptoms associated with diverticulosis are abdominal pain, constipation, and diarrhea. In some of these patients the symptoms may be due to the concomitant presence of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) or abnormalities in the function of the muscles of the sigmoid colon (in which case it is referred to as diverticular disease); simple diverticula should cause no symptoms. Occasionally, bleeding originates from a diverticulum, and it is referred to as diverticular bleeding.

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Shin splints (medial tibial stress syndrome) is an inflammation of the muscles, tendons, and bone tissue around your tibia. Pain typically occurs along the inner border of the tibia, where muscles attach to the bone.


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Your bowels are made up of two parts -- the large intestine, also called the colon, and the small intestine. Short bowel syndrome usually affects people who’ve had a lot of their small intestine removed. Without this part, your body can’t get enough nutrients and water from the food you eat. This causes bowel troubles, like diarrhea, which can be dangerous if you go without treatment.If you learn you have short bowel syndrome, know that doctors can do a lot of things to ease your symptoms and make sure you get the right nutrition. People who have the disease can lead active lives.Over time, your body may adjust to having a shorter small intestine, and you may be able to take fewer medicines. The key is to stick to your treatment plan and get the support you need.


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Central sleep apnea is a disorder in which your breathing repeatedly stops and starts during sleep.Central sleep apnea occurs because your brain doesn't send proper signals to the muscles that control your breathing. This condition is different from obstructive sleep apnea, in which you can't breathe normally because of upper airway obstruction. Central sleep apnea is less common than obstructive sleep apnea. Central sleep apnea may occur as a result of other conditions, such as heart failure and stroke. Sleeping at a high altitude also may cause central sleep apnea. Treatments for central sleep apnea may involve treating existing conditions, using a device to assist breathing or using supplemental oxygen.


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Obstructive sleep apnea is a potentially serious sleep disorder. It causes breathing to repeatedly stop and start during sleep.There are several types of sleep apnea, but the most common is obstructive sleep apnea. This type of apnea occurs when your throat muscles intermittently relax and block your airway during sleep. A noticeable sign of obstructive sleep apnea is snoring. Treatments for obstructive sleep apnea are available. One treatment involves using a device that keep your airway open while you sleep. Another option is a mouthpiece to thrust your jaw forward during sleep. In more severe cases, surgery may be an option too


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Sleep terrors are episodes of screaming, intense fear and flailing while still asleep. Also known as night terrors, sleep terrors often are paired with sleepwalking. Like sleepwalking, sleep terrors are considered a parasomnia — an undesired occurrence during sleep. A sleep terror episode usually lasts from seconds to a few minutes, but episodes may last longer. Sleep terrors affect almost 40 percent of children and a much smaller percentage of adults. However frightening, sleep terrors aren't usually a cause for concern. Most children outgrow sleep terrors by their teenage yearsSleep terrors may require treatment if they cause problems getting enough sleep or they pose a safety risk.

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It's normal to feel nervous in some social situations. For example, going on a date or giving a presentation may cause that feeling of butterflies in your stomach. But in social anxiety disorder, also called social phobia, everyday interactions cause significant anxiety, fear, self-consciousness and embarrassment because you fear being scrutinized or judged by others In social anxiety disorder, fear and anxiety lead to avoidance that can disrupt your life. Severe stress can affect your daily routine, work, school or other activities.Social anxiety disorder is a chronic mental health condition, but learning coping skills in psychotherapy and taking medications can help you gain confidence and improve your ability to interact with others




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The palate is commonly called the roof of the mouth. It is divided into two parts: the bony hard palate in the front, and the fleshy soft palate (called the velum) in the back of the mouth. The hard palate is part of the oral cavity and the soft palate is part of the oropharynx.The hard palate creates a barrier between the mouth and the nasal cavity. A natural opening in the palate for nerves and blood vessels (near the third molar) can create a passageway for a tumor to spread into the nasal cavity.The soft palate closes the nasal passage during swallowing so food does not enter the nose. It also helps create speech sounds. If the palate does not function correctly during speech, air escapes through the nose, and the speech has a nasal sound. During a sneeze, the soft palate closes the nasal passage to protect it. Substances in the sneeze are thrown out into mouth.


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Soft tissue sarcomas are a group of cancers that grow in parts of your body like your muscles, deep layers of skin, or in fat. They also can form on blood vessels, nerves, or connective tissues, which support organs and other kinds of tissues.Soft tissue sarcomas account for less than 1% of all cases of cancer. But there are dozens of different types, and they can happen in children and adults.About 12,000 people are diagnosed with one of these cancers every year.

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Solitary fibrous tumors are rare growths of soft tissue cells that can form nearly anywhere in the body.Solitary fibrous tumors most often occur in the lining around the outside of the lungs (pleural solitary fibrous tumors). Solitary fibrous tumors have also been found in the head and neck, breast, kidney, prostate, spinal cord, and other sites.Most solitary fibrous tumors are noncancerous (benign), but in rare cases, solitary fibrous tumors can be cancerous (malignant). Solitary fibrous tumors tend to grow slowly and may not cause signs and symptoms until they become very large.

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A spermatocele is an often pain-free benign cyst that occurs close to a testicle. It may also be known as a spermatic or epididymal cyst.The cyst forms in the epididymis. The epididymis is a coiled tube behind each testicle. The cyst is filled with fluid and may contain dead sperm. Read on to learn more about identifying and treating this condition

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Spider bites are quite rare. Spiders are not bloodsucking creatures and do not feed on humans.In fact, many species' fangs cannot pierce human skin.The only reason a spider would bite a human is defense. Spiders will bite when they are surprised or feel trapped.Quickly putting a hand or foot into a place where a spider lives, like a shoe or box, may surprise the spider and cause it to attack.A spider may also attack if it is trapped, such as in a jacket that has been hanging in the closet for some time.

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A spinal tumor is a growth that develops within your spinal canal or within the bones of your spine. A spinal cord tumor, also called an intradural tumor, is a spinal tumor that that begins within the spinal cord or the covering of the spinal cord (dura). A tumor that affects the bones of the spine (vertebrae) is called a vertebral tumor.Spinal cord tumors may be classified as one of three different types depending on where they occur relative to the protective membranes of the spinal cord.

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In the medical field, stenosis means the abnormal narrowing of a body channel. When combined with the word spinal, it defines a narrowing of the bone channel occupied by the spinal nerves or the spinal cord.Some people are born with a congenital form, but most develop spinal stenosis as part of the degenerative cascade. A few do not feel any effects of the narrowing, but as part of the aging process, most people will eventually notice radiating pain, weakness, and/or numbness secondary to the compression of the nerves or spinal cord.While the narrowing may occur at different parts of the spine, the symptoms of nerve compression are often similar. That is why specialists often will perform testing to determine the cause and location of the narrowing.

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A sprain is a stretched or torn ligament. Ligaments are tissues that connect bones at a joint. Falling, twisting, or getting hit can all cause a sprain. Ankle and wrist sprains are common. Symptoms include pain, swelling, bruising, and being unable to move your joint. You might feel a pop or tear when the injury happens.A strain is a stretched or torn muscle or tendon. Tendons are tissues that connect muscle to bone. Twisting or pulling these tissues can cause a strain. Strains can happen suddenly or develop over time. Back and hamstring muscle strains are common. Many people get strains playing sports. Symptoms include pain, muscle spasms, swelling, and trouble moving the muscle.At first, treatment of both sprains and strains usually involves resting the injured area, icing it, wearing a bandage or device that compresses the area, and medicines. Later treatment might include exercise and physical therapy.

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Staphylococcus bacteria (also termed staph) are responsible for a number of common infections. Staphylococcus is a genus of bacteria that is characterized by a round shape (coccus or spheroid shaped), Gram-stain positive, and found as either single cells, in pairs, or more frequently, in clusters that resemble a bunch of grapes. The genus name Staphylococcus is derived from Greek terms (staphyle and kokkos) that mean "a bunch of grapes," which is how the bacteria often appear microscopically after Gram-staining. In 1884, Rosenbach first described and named the bacteria. Two major divisions of the genus Staphylococcus are separated by the ability to produce coagulase, an enzyme that can clot blood. Most, but not all, human bacterial infections are caused by coagulase-positive Staphylococcus aureus strains. Staphylococcus epidermidis strains and other Staphylococcus species that are coagulase-negative produce slime that interferes with immune defenses. S. epidermidis are often associated with implanted devices (for example, catheters or prosthetic devices).

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Stickler syndrome is a genetic disorder caused by mutations in genes that are responsible for forming collagen, proteins which add strength and elasticity to connective tissue. Stickler syndrome affects connective tissue throughout the body, but most notably in the eyes (it is the most common cause of retinal detachment in children), ears, face, and joints.Stickler syndrome affects 1 out of every 7,500 people, but experts believe that it is widely under-diagnosed. While there is no medical cure for Stickler syndrome, when it is identified early, there is a lot that people can do to treat the problems it causes.

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Stomach cancer usually begins in the mucus-producing cells that line the stomach. This type of cancer is called adenocarcinoma.For the past several decades, rates of cancer in the main part of the stomach (stomach body) have been falling worldwide. During the same period, cancer in the area where the top part of the stomach (cardia) meets the lower end of the swallowing tube (esophagus) has become much more common. This area of the stomach is called the gastroesophageal junction.

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Stomach polyps — also called gastric polyps — are masses of cells that form on the lining inside your stomach. These polyps are rare and usually don't cause any signs or symptoms. Stomach polyps are most often discovered when your doctor is examining you for some other reason.Most stomach polyps don't become cancerous. But certain types can increase your risk of stomach cancer in the future. Depending on the type of stomach polyp you have, treatment might involve removing the polyp or monitoring it for changes.

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Stress fractures are tiny cracks in a bone. They're caused by repetitive force, often from overuse — such as repeatedly jumping up and down or running long distances. Stress fractures can also arise from normal use of a bone that's weakened by a condition such as osteoporosis.Stress fractures are most common in the weight-bearing bones of the lower leg and foot. Track and field athletes and military recruits who carry heavy packs over long distances are particularly susceptible, but anyone can have a stress fracture. If you start a new exercise program, for example, you might develop stress fractures if you do too much too soon.

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Stress incontinence is the inability to control your urge to urinate in certain circumstances. It’s a serious and embarrassing disorder and can lead to social isolation. Any pressure placed on the abdomen and bladder can lead to the loss of urine.It’s important to remember that the term “stress” is used in a strictly physical sense when describing stress incontinence. It refers to excessive pressure on the bladder and not emotional stress.An overactive bladder is a separate condition. In some cases, both overactive bladder and stress incontinence can occur, which is called mixed incontinence. Your doctor can do tests to determine which is causing your incontinence

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Stuttering affects the fluency of speech. It begins during childhood and, in some cases, lasts throughout life. The disorder is characterized by disruptions in the production of speech sounds, also called "disfluencies." Most people produce brief disfluencies from time to time. For instance, some words are repeated and others are preceded by "um" or "uh." Disfluencies are not necessarily a problem; however, they can impede communication when a person produces too many of them.In most cases, stuttering has an impact on at least some daily activities. The specific activities that a person finds challenging to perform vary across individuals. For some people, communication difficulties only happen during specific activities, for example, talking on the telephone or talking before large groups. For most others, however, communication difficulties occur across a number of activities at home, school, or work. Some people may limit their participation in certain activities. Such "participation restrictions" often occur because the person is concerned about how others might react to disfluent speech. Other people may try to hide their disfluent speech from others by rearranging the words in their sentence (circumlocution), pretending to forget what they wanted to say, or declining to speak. Other people may find that they are excluded from participating in certain activities because of stuttering. Clearly, the impact of stuttering on daily life can be affected by how the person and others react to the disorder.

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Sudden Cardiac Arrest (SCA) occurs when the heart stops beating, abruptly and without warning. If this happens, blood stops flowing to the brain and other vital organs. In addition, if the heartbeat is not restored with an electrical shock immediately, death follows within minutes. SCA accounts for more than 350,000 deaths in the U.S. each year.SCA accounts for more than 350,000 deaths in the U.S. each year and is one of the leading causes of death in the United States each year. In fact, SCA claims one life every 90 seconds, taking more lives each year than breast cancer, lung cancer or AIDS. Unfortunately, 95 percent of people who experience SCA die as a result, mainly because treatment within minutes is not accessible.

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An arrhythmia is an abnormality in the timing or pattern of the heartbeat. Arrhythmias may cause the heart to beat too rapidly, too slowly, or irregularly. They are common and may cause a wide variety of symptoms, such as a racing, skipping or fluttering sensation (called palpitations) in your chest.Cardiac arrhythmias also may cause light-headedness, fainting, chest pain, shortness of breath, fatigue or no symptoms at all. Many types of arrhythmia are merely nuisances, other types may be serious problems because they cause the patient to develop heart failure, pass out or even die suddenly when the heart beats too slowly or too rapidly to pump blood to the body.Supraventricular tachycardia is a series of rapid heartbeats that begin in or involve the upper chambers (atria) of the heart. SVT can cause the heart to beat very rapidly or erratically. As a result, the heart may beat inefficiently, and the body may receive an inadequate blood supply. There are three major types of SVT including:

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Tachycardia is a common type of heart rhythm disorder (arrhythmia) in which the heart beats faster than normal while at rest.It's normal for your heart rate to rise during exercise or as a physiological response to stress, trauma or illness (sinus tachycardia). But in tachycardia (tak-ih-KAHR-dee-uh), the heart beats faster than normal in the upper or lower chambers of the heart or both while at rest.Your heart rate is controlled by electrical signals sent across heart tissues. Tachycardia occurs when an abnormality in the heart produces rapid electrical signals that quicken the heart rate, which is normally about 60 to 100 beats a minute at rest.In some cases, tachycardia may cause no symptoms or complications. But if left untreated, tachycardia can disrupt normal heart function and lead to serious complications, including:


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Sweet’s syndrome (also known as acute febrile neutrophilic dermatosis) is an uncommon skin disorder characterised by a fever and the appearance of tender red lumps on the skin. It is a reactive condition with a number of potential triggers. It is not contagious and cannot be transferred from one person to another.

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Drug addiction is a chronic, often relapsing brain disease that causes compulsive drug seeking and use, despite harmful consequences to the drug addict and those around them. Drug addiction is a brain disease because the abuse of drugs leads to changes in the structure and function of the brain. Although it is true that for most people the initial decision to take drugs is voluntary, over time the changes in the brain caused by repeated drug abuse can impair a person's self-control and ability to make sound decisions, and at the same time create an intense impulse to take drugs.


It is because of these changes in the brain that it is so challenging for a person to stop abusing drugs. Fortunately, there are treatments that help people to counteract addiction's powerful disruptive effects and regain control of their lives. Research shows that combining addiction treatment medications, when appropriate, with behavioral therapy is the best way to ensure success for most patients. Treatment approaches that are tailored to each patient's drug abuse patterns and any concurrent medical, psychiatric, and social problems can help achieve  sustained recovery and a life without drugs.


As with other chronic diseases, such as diabetes, asthma, or heart disease, drug addiction can be managed effectively. Yet, it is not uncommon for a person to relapse and begin abusing drugs again. Relapse does not signal failure; rather, it indicates that treatment should be reinstated or adjusted, or that alternate treatment is needed to help the person regain control and recover.

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Swimmer's itch, also called cercarial dermatitis, appears as a skin rash caused by an allergic reaction to certain microscopic parasites that infect some birds and mammals. These parasites are released from infected snails into fresh and salt water (such as lakes, ponds, and oceans). While the parasite's preferred host is the specific bird or mammal, if the parasite comes into contact with a swimmer, it burrows into the skin causing an allergic reaction and rash. Swimmer's itch is found throughout the world and is more frequent during summer months.

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Swimmer's itch is an itchy rash that can occur after you go swimming or wading outdoors. Also known as cercarial dermatitis, swimmer's itch is most common in freshwater lakes and ponds, but it occasionally occurs in salt water.Swimmer's itch is a rash usually caused by an allergic reaction to parasites that burrow into your skin while you're swimming or wading in warm water.The parasites that cause swimmer's itch normally live in waterfowl and some animals. These parasites can be released into the water. Humans aren't suitable hosts, so the parasites soon die while still in your skin.Swimmer's itch is uncomfortable, but it usually clears up on its own in a few days. In the meantime, you can control itching with over-the-counter or prescription medications.


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Systemic mastocytosis (mas-to-sy-TOE-sis) is a disorder that results in an excessive number of mast cells in your body. Mast cells normally help protect you from disease and aid in wound healing by releasing substances such as histamine and leukotrienes. But if you have systemic mastocytosis, excess mast cells generally build up in your skin, bone marrow, gastrointestinal tract and bones. When triggered, these mast cells release substances that can overwhelm your body and result in signs and symptoms such as facial flushing, itching, a rapid heartbeat, abdominal cramps, lightheadedness or even loss of consciousness. Common triggers include alcohol, temperature changes, spicy foods and certain medications.Several types of systemic mastocytosis exist. The most common form — indolent systemic mastocytosis — progresses slowly.The second most common form is systemic mastocytosis associated with a second blood disorder. Another type, aggressive systemic mastocytosis, develops rapidly and is often associated with organ damage. Mast cell leukemia and mast cell sarcoma are extremely rare forms of systemic mastocytosis.


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The pulmonary veins are the four blood vessels (two on each side) that return oxygen-rich blood from the lungs to the left atrium (left upper chamber) of the heart. Total anomalous pulmonary venous return (TAPVR) is a rare congenital malformation in which all four pulmonary veins do not connect normally to the left atrium. Instead the four pulmonary veins drain abnormally to the right atrium (right upper chamber) by way of an abnormal (anomalous) connection.

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Tapeworms are long, segmented worms of the class Cestoda, which comprise 1 of 3 classes of parasitic worms (worms that require a host within which to mature). The other classes are Nematoda and Trematoda. These worms lack an intestinal tract and instead can absorb nutrients through their integument.The adult consists of a head (scolex), where the worms attach to the mucosa of the intestine; a neck; and a segmented body that contains both male gonads and female gonads (proglottids).

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Takotsubo cardiomyopathy is a weakening of the left ventricle, the heart's main pumping chamber, usually as the result of severe emotional or physical stress, such as a sudden illness, the loss of a loved one, a serious accident, or a natural disaster such as an earthquake. (For additional examples, see "Stressors associated with takotsubo cardiomyopathy.") That's why the condition is also called stress-induced cardiomyopathy, or broken-heart syndrome. The main symptoms are chest pain and shortness of breath.

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The features of seizures beginning in the temporal lobe can be extremely varied, but certain patterns are common. There may be a mixture of different feelings, emotions, thoughts, and experiences, which may be familiar or completely foreign. In some cases, a series of old memories resurfaces. In others, the person may feel as if everything – including home and family – appears strange. Hallucinations of voices, music, people, smells, or tastes may occur. These features are called “auras” or “warnings.” They may last for just a few seconds or may continue as long as a minute or two.Experiences during temporal lobe seizures vary in intensity and quality. Sometimes the seizures are so mild that the person barely notices. In other cases, the person may be consumed with fright, intellectual fascination, or even pleasure.The experiences and sensations that accompany these seizures are often impossible to describe, even for the most eloquent adult. And of course it is even more difficult to get an accurate picture of what people are feeling.

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The temporomandibular joint (TMJ) is the joint that connects your mandible (lower jaw) to your skull. The joint can be found on both sides of your head in front of your ears. It allows your jaw to open and close, enabling you to speak and eat.This abbreviation is also used to refer to a group of health problems related to your jaw. These disorders can cause tenderness at the joint, facial pain, and difficulty moving the joint. According to the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, as many as 10 million Americans suffer from TMJ. TMJ is more common among women than men. These disorders are treatable, but there are many different possible causes. This can make diagnosis difficult.Keep reading to learn more about TMJ. You should discuss any concerns with your doctor.

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The Achilles tendon attaches your calf muscles to your heel bone, or calcaneus. You use this tendon to jump, walk, run, and stand on the balls of your feet. Continuous, intense physical activity, such as running and jumping, can cause painful inflammation of the Achilles tendon, known as Achilles tendonitis (or tendinitis).


There are two types of Achilles tendonitis: insertional Achilles tendinitis and noninsertional Achilles tendonitis. Insertional Achilles tendonitis affects the lower portion of your tendon where it attaches to your heel bone. Noninsertional Achilles tendonitis involves fibers in the middle portion of the tendon and tends to affect younger people who are active.


Simple home treatments can help Achilles tendonitis. However, if home treatment doesn’t work, it’s important to see a doctor. If your tendonitis gets worse, your tendon can tear. You may need medication or surgery to ease the pain.


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The cause of the majority of cases is the bell clapper deformity, an anatomic abnormality that is present in some males. This anatomical condition allows the spermatic cord to twist more easily, resulting in compromise of the blood supply to the testicle. This can occur spontaneously or may be associated with trauma. There is no way to detect this deformity. In significant number of men who have this anatomical abnormality will have it in both testicles.

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Tetanus is a serious bacterial infection that affects the nervous system and causes muscles throughout the body to tighten. It’s also called lockjaw because the infection often causes muscle contractions in the jaw and neck. However, it can eventually spread to other parts of the body.Tetanus infection can be life-threatening without treatment. Approximately 10 to 20 percent of tetanus infections are fatal, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).Tetanus is a medical emergency that requires immediate treatment in a hospital. Fortunately, tetanus is preventable through the use of a vaccine. However, this vaccine does not last forever. Tetanus booster shots are needed every 10 years to ensure immunity.Because of the easy availability of the vaccine, tetanus is rare in the United States. It’s more common in other countries that don’t yet have strong immunization programs.

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Tetralogy of Fallot (teh-TRAL-uh-jee of fuh-LOW) is a rare condition caused by a combination of four heart defects that are present at birth (congenital).These defects, which affect the structure of the heart, cause oxygen-poor blood to flow out of the heart and to the rest of the body. Infants and children with tetralogy of Fallot usually have blue-tinged skin because their blood doesn't carry enough oxygen.Tetralogy of Fallot is often diagnosed during infancy or soon after. However, tetralogy of Fallot might not be detected until later in life in some adults, depending on the severity of the defects and symptoms.With early diagnosis followed by appropriate surgical treatment, most children and adults who have tetralogy of Fallot live relatively normal lives, though they'll need regular medical care throughout life and might have restrictions on exercise

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The term tetraplegia refers to a condition that causes total or partial paralysis in all four limbs, including the whole of the body. Tetraplegia can be caused by injury or illness, both  of which can damage the spinal cord permanently between the levels of  C1 - 7. The term tetraplegic refers to an individual who suffers from tetraplegia. Quadriplegic is the American terminology for tetraplegic.

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Transient global amnesia is a sudden, temporary episode of memory loss that can't be attributed to a more common neurological condition, such as epilepsy or stroke.During an episode of transient global amnesia, your recall of recent events simply vanishes, so you can't remember where you are or how you got there. In addition, you may not remember anything about what's happening in the here and now. Consequently, you may keep repeating the same questions because you don't remember the answers you've just been given. You may also draw a blank when asked to remember things that happened a day, a month or even a year ago.With transient global amnesia, you do remember who you are, and recognize the people you know well. But that doesn't make your memory loss less disturbing.Fortunately, transient global amnesia is rare, seemingly harmless and unlikely to happen again. Episodes are usually short-lived, and afterward your memory is fine.

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Thalassemia is an inherited blood disorder in which the body makes an abnormal form of hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is the protein molecule in red blood cells that carries oxygen.The disorder results in excessive destruction of red blood cells, which leads to anemia. Anemia is a condition in which your body doesn’t have enough normal, healthy red blood cells.Thalassemia is inherited, meaning that at least one of your parents must be a carrier of the disease. It’s caused by either a genetic mutation or a deletion of certain key gene fragments.Thalassemia minor is a less serious form of the disorder. There are two main forms of thalassemia that are more serious. In alpha thalassemia, at least one of the alpha globin genes has a mutation or abnormality. In beta thalassemia, the beta globin genes are affected.Each of these forms of thalassemia has different subtypes. The exact form you have will affect the severity of your symptoms and your outlook.

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Dry mouth: The condition of not having enough saliva to keep the mouth wet. This is due to inadequate function of the salivary glands. Everyone has dry mouth once in a while when they are nervous, upset or under stress. But if someone has a dry mouth most all of the time, it can be uncomfortable and lead to serious health problems.
Dry mouth can cause difficulties in tasting, chewing, swallowing, and speaking. If it goes untreated, severe dry mouth can also lead to increased levels of tooth decay and infections of the mouth such as thrush. Severe dry mouth is not a normal part of aging. It can be a clue to systemic diseases such as Sjogren syndrome, systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, scleroderma, sarcoidosis, amyloidosis, and hypothyroidism. Some medications can also cause dry mouth.

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A thoracic aortic aneurysm is a weakened area in the upper part of the aorta. The aorta is the major blood vessel that feeds blood to the body.A thoracic aortic aneurysm may also be called thoracic aneurysm and aortic dissection (TAAD) because an aneurysm can lead to a tear in the artery wall (dissection) that can cause life-threatening bleeding. Small and slow-growing thoracic aortic aneurysms may not ever rupture, but large, fast-growing aneurysms may rupture.Depending on the size and growth rate of your thoracic aortic aneurysm, treatment may vary from watchful waiting to emergency surgery. Ideally, surgery for a thoracic aortic aneurysm can be planned if necessary.

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The term ‘thoracic outlet syndrome’ describes compression of the neurovascular structures as they exit through the thoracic outlet (cervicothoracobrachial region). The thoracic outlet is marked by the anterior scalene muscle anteriorly, the middle scalene posteriorly, and the first rib inferiorly. This condition has emerged as one of the most controversial topics in musculoskeletal medicine and rehabilitation [2]. This controversy extends to almost every aspect of the pathology including the definition, incidence, pathoanatomical contributions, diagnosis, and treatment.The term ‘TOS’ does not specify the structure being compressed. Investigators namely identify two main categories of TOS: the vascular form (arterial or venous), which raises few diagnostic problems, and the neurological form, which occurs in more than 95-99% of all cases of TOS. Therefore the syndrome should be differentiated by using the terms arterial TOS (ATOS), venous TOS (VTOS) or neurogenic 

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Thromboangiitis obliterans (TAO), an inflammatory vasculopathy also known as Buerger disease, is characterized by an inflammatory endarteritis that causes a prothrombotic state and subsequent vaso-occlusive phenomena. The inflammatory process is initiated within the tunica intima. It characteristically affects small and medium-sized arteries as well as veins of the upper and lower extremities. The condition is strongly associated with heavy tobacco use, and disease progression is closely linked to continued use. (See Pathophysiology and Etiology.)Patients often present with moderate-to-severe claudication that can quickly progress to critical limb ischemia featuring rest pain or tissue loss. Features of acute limb ischemia (eg, pain, paresthesia, palor, mottling, poikilothermia, paresis, and pulselessness) are common signs and symptoms encountered in the emergency setting. [1, 2, 3, 4] (See Presentation.)Pharmacologic therapy is generally ineffective; abstinence from tobacco is the only measure known to prevent disease progression. (See Treatment.) Given the arteritis of the small and medium-sized vessels, surgical or endovascular revascularization may not be possible, because of the absence of a distal target for revascularization. As the disease evolves, amputation may be the only viable option.


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Thrombocytopenia is a condition in which you have a low blood platelet count. Platelets (thrombocytes) are colorless blood cells that help blood clot. Platelets stop bleeding by clumping and forming plugs in blood vessel injuries.Thrombocytopenia often occurs as a result of a separate disorder, such as leukemia or an immune system problem. Or it can be a side effect of taking certain medications. It affects both children and adults.Thrombocytopenia may be mild and cause few signs or symptoms. In rare cases, the number of platelets may be so low that dangerous internal bleeding occurs. Treatment options are available.

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Thrombocytosis is a disorder in which your body produces too many platelets (thrombocytes), which play an important role in blood clotting. The disorder is called reactive thrombocytosis or secondary thrombocythemia when it's caused by an underlying condition, such as an infection.Thrombocytosis (throm-boe-sie-TOE-sis) may also, less commonly, be caused by a blood and bone marrow disease. When caused by a bone marrow disorder, thrombocytosis is called autonomous, primary or essential thrombocytosis, or essential thrombocythemia.Your doctor may detect thrombocytosis in routine blood test results that show a high platelet level. If your blood test indicates thrombocytosis, it's important to determine whether it's reactive thrombocytosis or if you have essential thrombocythemia, which is more likely to cause blood clots.


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Thrombophlebitis is inflammation of a vein caused by a blood clot. It typically occurs in the legs. A blood clot is a solid formation of blood cells that clump together. Blood clots can interfere with normal blood flow throughout your body, and are considered dangerous. Thrombophlebitis can occur in veins near the surface of your skin or deeper, down in between your muscle layers.


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A joint is where bones connect and move.  Arthritis is thinning of the cartilage, which is the smooth covering of the joint.  The body reacts to loss of the joint surface by forming bone spurs (osteophytes) Thumb arthritis is a genetic predisposition: like graying and thinning of the hair, it comes with age and it shows up earlier in some families.  Unlike thinning of the hair, women tend to get thumb arthritis sooner than men do.


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A thunderclap headache is a severe headache that starts suddenly. This type of headache pain doesn’t gradually build in intensity. Instead, it’s an intense and very painful headache as soon as it starts. In fact, it’s frequently described as the worse headache of one’s life.A thunderclap headache may be a sign of a condition that can be life-threatening. It may be connected to some sort of bleeding in your brain. It’s important that you seek medical attention if you think you may be experiencing one. It may also have a benign cause that’s not life-threatening but should still be checked immediately to find out what’s causing it.


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Tinea capitis causes the gradual appearance of round patches of dry scale, alopecia, or both. T. tonsurans infection causes black dot ringworm, in which hair shafts break at the scalp surface; M. audouinii infection causes gray patch ringworm, in which hair shafts break above the surface, leaving short stubs. Tinea capitis less commonly manifests as diffuse scaling, like dandruff, or in a diffuse pustular pattern.


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Tinea Barbae which is common term known as Beard Fungus or Barber's Itch is a fungal infection of the skin in the area of the face where there is growth of beard meaning that it affects mainly the bottom area of the face and some part of the neck. As the name suggest, Tinea Barbae is solely limited to males and does not affect females in any way. It is usually found in adolescents or young adults. Tinea Barbae has now become quite rare due to the modern hygiene practices which prevent any fungal infections especially in the facial area.


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Tinea pedis is a common superficial fungal (dermatophyte) skin infection of the feet. It may present in several clinical varieties: intertriginous, moccasin, vesicobullous, or a combination of these. It is often referred to as “Athlete’s Foot”.  Tinea pedis may be accompanied by dermatophyte infection of other parts of the body including groin, hands or nails. It is estimated to affect about 15% of the population at large, being more common in closed communities such army barracks and boarding schools, in warm weather, among those frequenting swimming pools, and when the feet are occluded with nonporous shoes.  Tinea pedis is estimated to be present in about 40% of all patients who attend clinics for any medical concern1. Those patients with more severe symptoms seek medical help and often have concomitant fungal infection of the toenails 2, 3. There are many undiagnosed cases, many of which may be asymptomatic and unsuspecting of having tinea pedis 2  and be a possible source of infection for others. Chronic infection is common in patients with concomitant diabetes, atopy, and immunosuppression. In an increasingly aging population and with the increasing numbers of immunocompromised patients, tinea is emerging as an important and a significantly prevalent infection.


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There are two parts to your tongue: the oral tongue and the base of the tongue. Cancer can develop in either part.The oral tongue is the part you see when you poke your tongue out at someone. This is the front two thirds of your tongue. Cancers that develop in this part of the tongue come under a group of cancers called mouth (oral) cancer.The base of the tongue is the back third of the tongue. This part is very near your throat (pharynx). Cancers that develop in this part are called oropharyngeal cancers (pronounced oar-o-farin-gee-al

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Tonsils come in a pair located at the back of your throat in an area known as the oropharynx. Their role is to help fight infection. Cancer can develop in your tonsils. Tonsil cancer is classified as head and neck cancer, throat cancer, and oropharynx cancer.Tonsil cancer can develop even in people who’ve had their tonsils removed because a small piece of tonsil tissue may be left behind.

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Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is a genetic disorder affecting cellular differentiation, proliferation, and migration early in development, resulting in a variety of hamartomatous lesions that may affect virtually every organ system of the body.The best-known cutaneous manifestation of TSC is adenoma sebaceum, which often does not appear until late childhood or early adolescence. This lesion is an angiofibroma (ie, cutaneous hamartoma) and is not related to excessive sebum or acne. Flat, reddish macular lesions develop first, which can be mistaken for freckles early on. See the image below.

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Turner syndrome is a chromosomal condition that affects development in females. The most common feature of Turner syndrome is short stature, which becomes evident by about age 5. An early loss of ovarian function (ovarian hypofunction or premature ovarian failure) is also very common. The ovaries develop normally at first, but egg cells (oocytes) usually die prematurely and most ovarian tissue degenerates before birth. Many affected girls do not undergo puberty unless they receive hormone therapy, and most are unable to conceive (infertile). A small percentage of females with Turner syndrome retain normal ovarian function through young adulthood.About 30 percent of females with Turner syndrome have extra folds of skin on the neck (webbed neck), a low hairline at the back of the neck, puffiness or swelling (lymphedema) of the hands and feet, skeletal abnormalities, or kidney problems. One third to one half of individuals with Turner syndrome are born with a heart defect, such as a narrowing of the large artery leaving the heart (coarctation of the aorta) or abnormalities of the valve that connects the aorta with the heart (the aortic valve). Complications associated with these heart defects can be life-threatening.Most girls and women with Turner syndrome have normal intelligence. Developmental delays, nonverbal learning disabilities, and behavioral problems are possible, although these characteristics vary among affected individuals.


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The term trisomy is used to describe the presence of three chromosomes, rather than the usual matched pair of chromosomes. For example, if a baby is born with three #21 chromosomes, rather than the usual pair, then the baby would be said to have "trisomy 21." Trisomy 21 is also known as Down syndrome. Other examples of trisomy include syndromes like trisomy 18 and trisomy 13. Again, trisomy 18 or trisomy 13 simply means the child has three copies of the #18 chromosome (or of the #13 chromosome) present in each cell of the body, rather than the usual pair.

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Trisomy X is a disorder that affects females and is characterized by the presence of an additional X chromosome. Normally, females have two X chromosomes; however, females with trisomy X carry three X chromosomes in the nuclei of body cells. There are specific physical features (phenotype) associated with this chromosomal disorder. Common symptoms that can potentially occur include language-based learning disabilities, developmental dyspraxia, tall stature, low muscle tone (hypotonia), and abnormal bending or curving of the pinkies toward the ring fingers (clinodactyly). Trisomy X occurs randomly as a result from errors during the division of reproductive cells in one of the parents. This disorder occurs in one in 900 to 1,000 live births.

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Tricuspid valve disease affects the valve that connects the upper and lower chambers (atrium and ventricle) on the right side of your heart.Aurora Health Care’s teams are the region’s leaders in diagnosing and treating heart valve diseases. We offer customized treatment using the most advanced, minimally invasive procedures, whether the condition is congenital (a birth defect) or develops later in life.

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Dysthymia: A type of depression involving long-term, chronic symptoms that are not disabling, but keep a person from functioning at "full steam" or from feeling good. Dysthymia is a less severe type of depression than what is accorded the diagnosis of major depression. However, people with dysthymia may also sometimes experience major depressive episodes, suggesting that there is a continuum between dysthymia and major depression.
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Trigger finger is a painful condition that causes the fingers or thumb to catch or lock when bent. In the thumb its called trigger thumb.Trigger finger happens when tendons in the finger or thumb become inflamed. Tendons are tough bands of tissue that connect muscles and bones. Together, the tendons and muscles in the hands and arms bend and straighten the fingers and thumbs.A tendon usually glides easily through the tissue that covers it (called a sheath) because of a lubricating membrane surrounding the joint called the synovium. Sometimes a tendon may become inflamed and swollen. Prolonged irritation of the tendon sheath can produce scarring and thickening that impede the tendon's motion. When this happens, bending the finger or thumb can pull the inflamed tendon through a narrowed tendon sheath, making it snap or pop.

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richinosis is a disease caused by parasitic roundworms (nematodes) that can infect and damage body tissues. Nematodes are a major division of the helminth family of parasitic worms (for example, Trichinella spiralis). When ingested, these parasitic worms can pass through the intestinal tract to invade other tissues, such as muscle, where they persist. Trichinosis is also termed trichinellosis, trichiniasis, or trichinelliasis. Trichinosis is not to be confused with trichomoniasis, a sexually 

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Trichomoniasis (also called trich) is a common, curable sexually transmitted infection (STI) caused by a parasitic protozoa called Trichomonas vaginalis. More than one million new cases occur each year in the U.S. Trichomoniasis may cause symptoms in women, but most men do not have symptoms. You may need to talk to your healthcare provider about whether or not you should be tested. If you have trichomoniasis, you are more likely to contract HIV if you are exposed–so getting tested and treated is important

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Trichotillomania (trik-o-til-o-MAY-nee-uh), also called hair-pulling disorder, is a mental disorder that involves recurrent, irresistible urges to pull out hair from your scalp, eyebrows or other areas of your body, despite trying to stop.Hair pulling from the scalp often leaves patchy bald spots, which causes significant distress and can interfere with social or work functioning. People with trichotillomania may go to great lengths to disguise the loss of hair.For some people, trichotillomania may be mild and generally manageable. For others, the compulsive urge to pull hair is overwhelming. Some treatment options have helped many people reduce their hair pulling or stop entirely.

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Tricuspid atresia is a condition seen in newborns in which they’re born without an important part of the heart called “the tricuspid valve.” This valve plays a part in the heart’s essential function, which is to pump blood between the lungs and body.In some newborns, the tricuspid valve is missing or hasn’t properly developed. Tricuspid atresia is a rare heart disorder that’s congenital, or present at birth. It’s a serious condition, and it can be life-threatening.

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Transposition of the great arteries is a serious but rare heart defect present at birth (congenital), in which the two main arteries leaving the heart are reversed (transposed). The condition is also called dextro-transposition of the great arteries. A rarer type of this condition is called levo-transposition of the great arteries.Transposition of the great arteries changes the way blood circulates through the body, leaving a shortage of oxygen in blood flowing from the heart to the rest of the body. Without an adequate supply of oxygen-rich blood, the body can't function properly and your child faces serious complications or death without treatment.Transposition of the great arteries is usually detected either prenatally or within the first hours to weeks of life.Corrective surgery soon after birth is the usual treatment for transposition of the great arteries. Having a baby with transposition of the great arteries can be alarming, but with proper treatment, the outlook is promising

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Transverse myelitis is an inflammation of the spinal cord, a major part of the central nervous system.  The spinal cord carries nerve signals to and from the brain through nerves that extend from each side of the spinal cord and connect to nerves elsewhere in the body.  The term myelitis refers to inflammation of the spinal cord; transverse refers to the pattern of changes in sensation—there is often a band-like sensation across the trunk of the body, with sensory changes below.Causes of transverse myelitis include infections, immune system disorders, and other disorders that may damage or destroy myelin, the fatty white insulating substance that covers nerve cell fibers.  Inflammation within the spinal cord interrupts communications between nerve fibers in the spinal cord and the rest of the body, affecting sensation and nerve signaling below the injury.  Symptoms include pain, sensory problems, weakness in the legs and possibly the arms, and bladder and bowel problems.  The symptoms may develop suddenly (over a period of hours) or over days or weeks.Transverse myelitis can affect people of any age, gender, or race.  It does not appear to be genetic or run in families.  A peak in incidence rates (the number of new cases per year) appears to occur between 10 and 19 years and 30 and 39 years.  It is estimated that about 1,400 new cases of transverse myelitis are diagnosed each year in the United States.Although some people recover from transverse myelitis with minor or no residual problems, the healing process may take months to years.  Others may suffer permanent impairments that affect their ability to perform ordinary tasks of daily living.  Some individuals will have only one episode of transverse myelitis; other individuals may have a recurrence, especially if an underlying illness caused the disorder.There is no cure for transverse myelitis.  Treatments to prevent or minimize permanent neurological deficits include corticosteroid and other medications that suppress the immune system, plasmapheresis (removal of proteins from the blood), or antiviral medications.

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Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a complex injury with a broad spectrum of symptoms and disabilities. The impact on a person and his or her family can be devastating. The purpose of this site is to educate and empower caregivers and survivors of traumatic brain injuries. This site aims to ease the transition from shock and despair at the time of a brain injury to coping and problem solving. Bookmark this site for the latest medical breakthroughs and brain research, the highest quality treatment for brain damage, the symptoms of brain injuries and the nation's best traumatic brain injury rehabilitation centers and resource information.


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    Toxic Hepatitis defines inflammatory liver disease.  The effect of irritant to liver cells causes inflammation of the liver tissue Irritant toxics to liver cells are alcohol, chemicals, street drugs and some nutritional supplements.  There have bene cases where Toxic Hepatitis has developed in a matter of hours or days since exposure to toxins whereas there have been other instances where it has taken months of regular exposure to the toxin before any symptom of Toxic Hepatitis is observed. Generally, symptoms produced by Toxic Hepatitis are self limiting and tend to go away when the exposure to the toxin is eliminated but there have been cases where Toxic Hepatitis has permanently damaged the liver resulting in cirrhosis and in some instances liver failure


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Toxic shock syndrome is a rare but serious medical condition caused by a bacterial infection. It is caused when the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus gets into the bloodstream and produces toxins.Although toxic shock syndrome has been linked to superabsorbent tampon use in menstruating women, this condition can affect men, children, and people of all ages. 

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Toxemia: A condition in pregnancy, also known as pre-eclampsia (or preeclampsia) characterized by abrupt hypertension (a sharp rise in blood pressure), albuminuria (leakage of large amounts of the protein albumin into the urine) and edema (swelling) of the hands, feet, and face. Pre-eclampsia is the most common complication of pregnancy. It affects about 5% of pregnancies. It occurs in the third trimester (the last third) of pregnancy.Pre-eclampsia occurs most frequently in first pregnancies. It is more common in women who have diabetes or who are carrying twins. Some women seem to have a strong tendency to develop the disease and suffer from pre-eclampsia with every pregnancy. Pre-eclampsia is more common in daughters of women who have been affected; in many cases the disease tends to run in families.Pre-eclampsia can be a sign of serious problems. It may, for example, indicate that the placenta is detaching from the uterus. In some cases, untreated pre-eclampsia can progress to eclampsia, a life-threatening situation for both mother and fetus characterized by coma and seizures.Treatment is by bed rest and sometimes medication. If that treatment is ineffective, the induction of labor and delivery or a C-section may have to be considered. Pre-eclampsia usually resolves a short time after the baby is born. 


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Tourette syndrome (TS) is a neurological disorder characterized by repetitive, stereotyped, involuntary movements and vocalizations called tics. The disorder is named for Dr. Georges Gilles de la Tourette, the pioneering French neurologist who in 1885 first described the condition in an 86-year-old French noblewoman.The early symptoms of TS are typically noticed first in childhood, with the average onset between the ages of 3 and 9 years. TS occurs in people from all ethnic groups; males are affected about three to four times more often than females. It is estimated that 200,000 Americans have the most severe form of TS, and as many as one in 100 exhibit milder and less complex symptoms such as chronic motor or vocal tics. Although TS can be a chronic condition with symptoms lasting a lifetime, most people with the condition experience their worst tic symptoms in their early teens, with improvement occurring in the late teens and continuing into adulthood.


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Uterine fibroids are benign tumors that originate in the uterus (womb). Although they are composed of the same smooth muscle fibers as the uterine wall (myometrium), they are much denser than normal myometrium. Uterine fibroids are usually round.Uterine fibroids are often described based upon their location within the uterus. Subserosal fibroids are located beneath the serosa (the lining membrane on the outside of the uterus). These often appear localized on the outside surface of the uterus or may be attached to the outside surface by a pedicle. Submucosal (submucous) fibroids are located inside the uterine cavity beneath the inner lining of the uterus. Intramural fibroids are located within the muscular wall of the uterus.

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Uterine polyps are soft red outgrowths from the lining of the womb (the endometrium), usually less than 1 cm in diameter, which often flatten to fit the cavity of the uterus.The stalk of the polyp (or pedicle) is usually short, but sometimes it grows long enough for the polyp to project from the cervix (the lower opening of the womb). Polyps are prone to bleeding, and a uterine polyp that develops near the fallopian tubes may obstruct the opening of the tubes, possibly leading to difficulty with becoming pregnant. Uterine polyps can develop in pre- or post-menopausal women. Very rarely, polyps can be cancerous.


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The uterus (the womb, in which a fetus develops) is normally held in place inside the pelvis with various muscles and ligaments. Sometimes, because of childbirth or difficult labor and vaginal delivery, these tissues are weakened. As a woman ages and with age-related decrease in the concentration of the hormone estrogen, her uterus can move downward into the vaginal canal, causing the condition known as a prolapsed uterus.Muscle weakness or relaxation may allow the uterus to sag or come completely out of the body. Prolapsed uterus can be described in the following stages

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A urinary tract infection (UTI) is an infection in any part of your urinary system — your kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra. Most infections involve the lower urinary tract — the bladder and the urethra.Women are at greater risk of developing a UTI than are men. Infection limited to your bladder can be painful and annoying. However, serious consequences can occur if a UTI spreads to your kidneys.Doctors typically treat urinary tract infections with antibiotics. But you can take steps to reduce your chances of getting a UTI in the first place

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Unstable angina belongs to the spectrum of clinical presentations referred to collectively as acute coronary syndromes (ACSs), which also includes ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) and non-STEMI (NSTEMI). [1, 2] Unstable angina is considered to be an ACS in which there is myocardial ischemia without detectable myocardial necrosis (ie, cardiac biomarkers of myocardial necrosis —such as creatine kinase MB isozyme, troponin, myoglobin—are not released into the circulation). See the image below.

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An ear infection, or otitis media, is the most common cause of earaches. Although this condition is a frequent cause of infant distress and is often associated with children, it can also affect adults.

The infection in the middle ear (the space behind the eardrum where tiny bones pick up vibrations and pass them along to the inner ear) very often accompanies a common cold, the flu, or other types of respiratory infections. This is because the middle ear is connected to the upper respiratory tract by a tiny channel known as the Eustachian tube. Germs that are growing in the nose or sinus cavities can climb up the Eustachian tube and enter the middle ear to start growing.

Most parents are frustratingly familiar with ear infections. Except for wellness baby visits, ear infections are the most common reason for trips to the pediatrician, accounting for approximately 30 million doctor visits a year in the U.S.
 
 
 

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Cancer of the ureter (ureteral cancer) is a type of cancer that begins in the cells that line the inside of the tubes (ureters) that connect your kidneys to your bladder. Ureters are part of the urinary tract, and they carry urine produced by the kidneys to the bladder.Ureteral cancer is uncommon. It occurs most often in older adults and in people who have previously been treated for bladder cancer.Ureteral cancer is closely related to bladder cancer. The cells that line the ureters are the same type of cells that line the inside of the bladder. People diagnosed with ureteral cancer have a greatly increased risk of bladder cancer, so your doctor will recommend tests to look for signs of bladder cancer.Treatment for ureteral cancer typically involves surgery. In certain cases, chemotherapy may be recommended.

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Ureteral obstructions are blockages in your urinary tract, which includes your kidneys, bladder, the tubes that carry urine from your kidneys to your bladder (ureters), and the tube that connects your bladder to the outside of your body (urethra). Blockages can develop for many reasons, including gastrointestinal problems. Ureteral obstructions are more common in men, especially as they get older and their prostate gland enlarges.Obstructions can be cured with surgery, but they need to be treated promptly. If they’re not, they can lead to severe illness, kidney damage and life-threatening infections.

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Ophthalmology is a branch of medicine dealing with the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases of the eye and visual system. The eye, its surrounding structures and the visual system can be affected by a number of clinical conditions. Ophthalmology involves diagnosis and therapy of such conditions, along with microsurgery. Eye health services are becoming more and more important as the UK population ages. An ageing population means there are more and more incidences of age-related diseases of the eye, such as age-related macular degeneration. These eye diseases can be successfully treated if caught early, and can be managed effectively with existing treatments and medicines. Cataracts are the main cause of impaired vision worldwide, and in England and Wales it is estimated that around 2.5 million people aged 65 or older have some degree of visual impairment caused by cataracts. Cataract surgery is the second most common operation performed in the NHS in England – over 300,000 procedures are performed each year. Patients and members of the general public can view more information about eye conditions and treatments in our ‘For Patients‘ section.


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Pilates aims to strengthen the body in an even way, with particular emphasis on core strength to improve general fitness and wellbeing. Pilates exercises are done on a mat or using special equipment, such as the Reformer, the Cadillac and Wunda Chair. With its system of pulleys and springs, handles and straps, the apparatus can provide either resistance or support, depending on your needs.Pilates was developed by German-born Joseph Pilates, who believed mental and physical health were closely connected. His method was influenced by western forms of exercise, including gymnastics, boxing and Greco-Roman wrestling. Pilates immigrated to the US in the 1920s and opened a studio in New York, where he taught his method – which he called contrology – for several decades.


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The idea behind functional training is that each exercise should be more natural and carry over into daily life. Functional training exercises tend to activate more muscles and therefore consume more energy. These multidimensional exercises also tend to improve your natural movement skills and enhance your general mobility.See how many of the below functional training exercises you can incorporate into your workouts for a more practical and fat burning workout.


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Those who are looking to feel the burn, baby! Looking to strengthen and tone your legs and glutes? Step right up.We combine the awesome toning and strengthening power of Step aerobics, with the fun fitness-party that only Zumba® brings to the dance-floor.Zumba® Step increase cardio and calorie burning, while adding moves that define and sculpt your core and legs.


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Step aerobics is a classic cardio workout. It's lasted for decades for a simple reason: It delivers results.The "step" is a 4-inch to 12-inch raised platform. You step up, around, and down from the platform in different patterns to boost your heart rate and breathing, and strengthen your muscles.Step aerobics moves range from simple to advanced. The most basic is a step-up, step-down. Once you get more experienced, you do moves that take you over the top and around the step forwards, sideways, and backwards.Most people take step aerobics classes at a gym, with an instructor showing you each move. The instructor and the upbeat music motivate you to keep going.Your class will start with a warm-up, followed by choreographed routines on the step, and a cooldown at the end. In some classes, you'll use hand weights for strength-training moves off the step.


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This beginner level workout features basic choreography. Gin Miller, the inventor of step aerobics, leads this video. In an article appearing on the IDEA Health and Fitness Association website, Miller says "Everbody Steps" is a top seller. It's a solid, complete introduction to step workouts. You burn fat while learning the step basics from Miller, an IDEA Instructor of the Year with 12 years of step experience. Miller makes the moves understandable and explains common step-aerobic terminology in laymen's terms. The video has six distinct segments that allow you to advance at your own pace and stop when you want. The workout begins with the simplest steps and the easiest patterns and progresses into classic step-aerobic combinations, such as straddles, turns and transitions.


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Look around. There are countless articles in magazines and online about gaining size and strength. Everyone wants to get strong, and everyone wants to add muscle, but most don’t achieve the goal. Why? A number of reasons, including ridiculous exercise selection, poor programming, and—from what I’ve seen as a coach for almost 25 years—bad form.If you’re willing to do the hard work and make the commitment to using perfect form, I’ve got the ultimate plan for you: an eight-week guide to getting stronger than you ever thought you could.It’s a simple plan based on compound movements, high-repetition heavy lifting, and maximum-effort training. Throw in the right assistance work and you’ve got a plan for success.


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Gym workouts can help you burn calories and lose fat, gain strength, tone muscle groups and develop an overall sense of well-being. To add a twist to your regular workout routine, get together with one or more others at your gym and play a few gym workout games. Be sure all game participants stay hydrated before, during and after the workout. Consult your physician before beginning an exercise program.


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A nine-to-five job shackled to your cubicle leaves you with hardly any stamina to hit the gym in the evenings. Add to that, lack of motivation and it can only spell doom for your waistline. In such a scenario, can a party workout be that much-needed boost The party workout is redefining the concept of the workout, which brings the dance club into the gym. Fitness clubs host disco-lit classes of boot-camp style routines set to pumping music played by DJs. It's the latest fitness fad hitting New York gyms, and is generally wrapped up with post-workout 'pretend'tinis made from vitamin water! While it sounds like the perfect fix for those who want a club experience minus the calories of cocktails, can it really work for you? We get experts to comment.


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 Inactivity is taking its toll on human beings. As fitness professionals, we are keenly aware that society is fascinated with the human body—with losing fat, specifically—and yet, getting people to exercise is still a major obstacle. Obesity, a significant and growing health problem, has been associated with heart disease, diabetes, hyperlipidemia, hypertension and hyperinsulinemia, among other conditions. The numbers speak louder than words. Overweight is defined as having a body mass index (BMI) of 25 to 29.9, obesity as having a BMI equal to or greater than 30. Fifty-five to 60 percent of adults over the age of 18 have a BMI of at least 25; approximately 22 percent have a BMI of 30 or higher (Jakicic et al. 2001).


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An ECG (electrocardiogram) records the electrical activity of your heart at rest. It provides information about your heart rate and rhythm, and shows if there is enlargement of the heart due to high blood pressure (hypertension) or evidence of a previous heart attack (myocardial infarction). However, it does not show whether you have asymptomatic blockages in your heart arteries or predict your risk of a future heart attack. The resting ECG is different from a stress or exercise ECG or cardiac imaging test. You may need an ECG test if you have risk factors for heart disease such as high blood pressure, or symptoms such as palpitations or chest pain. Or you may need it if you already have heart disease. But in other cases, you may think twice about having this test.

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An echocardiogram (echo) is a graphic outline of the heart's movement. During an echo test, ultrasound (high-frequency sound waves) from a hand-held wand placed on your chest provides pictures of the heart's valves and chambers and helps the sonographer evaluate the pumping action of the heart. Echo is often combined with Doppler ultrasound and color Doppler to evaluate blood flow across the heart's valves.

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Pica is the persistent eating of substances such as dirt or paint that have no nutritional value.

The Handbook of Clinical Child Psychologycurrently estimates that prevalence rates of pica range from 4%-26% among institutionalized populations. Research among non-institutionalized populations takes the form of individual case studies, making prevalence rates difficult to estimate.
 
 
 

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Fetal echocardiography is a test similar to an ultrasound. This exam allows your doctor to better see the structure and function of your unborn child’s heart. It’s typically done in the second trimester, between weeks 18 to 24.


The exam uses sound waves that “echo” off of the structures of the fetus’ heart. A machine analyzes these sound waves and creates a picture, or echocardiogram, of their heart’s interior. This image provides information on how your baby’s heart has formed and whether it’s working properly.


It also allows your doctor to see the blood flow through their heart. This in-depth look allows your doctor to find any defects or abnormalities in the baby’s blood flow or heartbeat.

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The child will lie down tilted slightly on his / her side on a hospital bed in our child-friendly examination room, not an operating room. Many exam rooms are equipped with a television to keep a child entertained and alleviate boredom. The child must be undressed from the waist up and can choose to wear a short gown.


To improve the quality of the pictures, a colorless, warm gel is applied to the skin on the area of the chest where the heart is located. A transducer, a small microphone-like device, is placed on top of the gel and against the skin. The transducer uses sound waves, which bounce off the different parts of a child's heart, creating a picture.


The transducer is moved over the chest, abdominal area, and neck in order to obtain the images.


The sounds you may hear from the echo machine are the sounds of the blood flowing from one chamber to another and the valves opening or closing as the blood moves through the heart.


The colors you see on the screen are not the colors of the blood. The colors tell us what direction the blood is flowing. The red color shows the blood is flowing towards the transducer and the blue color shows blood is flowing away. A child may feel some discomfort from the pressure of the transducer. Pediatric echosonographers are trained to complete scans in as pain-free and patient-sensitive manner as possible. 


A computer interprets the information from the transducer to make an image of the heart appear on the screen. This image is recorded into a digital storage system for the cardiologist to measure and review. 

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A stress echocardiography, also called an echocardiography stress test or stress echo, is a procedure that determines how well your heart and blood vessels are working.


During a stress echocardiography, you’ll exercise on a treadmill or stationary bike while your doctor monitors your blood pressure and heart rhythm. When your heart rate reaches peak levels, your doctor will take ultrasound images of your heart to determine whether your heart muscles are getting enough blood and oxygen while you exercise.


Your doctor may order a stress echocardiography test if you have chest pain that they think is due to coronary artery disease or a myocardial infarction, which is a heart attack. This test also determines how much exercise you can safely tolerate if you’re in cardiac rehabilitation. The test can also tell your doctor how well treatments such as bypass grafting, angioplasty, and anti-anginal or antiarrhythmic medications are working.

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This test is the same as a treadmill exercise test. This test checks the function of the heart during and after physical activity. In addition, an IV will be started and, at the peak of exercise, the patient will be injected with a mild isotope. The patient will then be escorted to the scanning room adjacent to the stress lab for approximately 30 minutes. From there, the patient will be free to leave and will return 3 hours later for a repeat scan.


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TMT Laboratories (a.k.a. Tension Member Technology or simply TMT) is primarily a large-scale mechanical test facility. Our 24,000-square-foot laboratory houses several large test machines with load frames, cylinders, and load cells that range in capacity from a few pounds to several million. These machines and their auxiliary equipment can be configured in various combinations to simulate a wide variety of mechanical service situations. To compliment the mechanical testing, TMT also keeps a large suite of electrical and optical test equipment that can be used to monitor various test parameters during mechanical or stand-alone tests. Since we opened our doors in 1976, we have worked with the oil & gas, telecommunication, military & defense, space & aviation, oceanographic, shipping, automotive, construction, and recreation industries. During this time, we have developed world-renowned expertise in the testing and optimizing of rope and cable systems. Despite our attraction to ropes and cables, we are always looking for new areas to apply our resources. Our test machines, diverse instrumentation, data acquisition equipment, and experienced engineers are ready to tackle a wide range of testing needs.


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A brainstem auditory evoked response (BAER) test measures how your brain processes the sounds you hear. The BAER test records your brainwaves in response to clicks or other audio tones that are played for you. The test is also called a brainstem auditory evoked potentials (BAEP) or auditory brainstem response (ABR) test.


A BAER test can help to diagnose hearing loss and nervous system disorders, especially in newborns, young children, and others who may not be able to participate in a standard hearing test.


BAER tests are often administered to canines and are the only scientifically reliable way to test a dog’s ability to hear with one or both ears.

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An electromyogram (EMG) measures the electrical activity of muscles when they're at rest and when they're being used. Nerve conduction studies measure how well and how fast the nerves can send electrical signals.


Nerves control the muscles in the body with electrical signals called impulses. These impulses make the muscles react in certain ways. Nerve and muscle problems cause the muscles to react in ways that aren't normal.


If you have leg pain or numbness, you may have these tests to find out which nerves are being affected and how much they are affected. These tests check how well your spinal nerves are working. They also check the nerves in your arms and legs.

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We reviewed the records of 52 amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) patients examined between 1995 and 2000 who had needle electromyography (EMG) of their respiratory muscles, including the diaphragm, at or near the time of their diagnosis. With respiratory function testing, patients with abnormal diaphragmatic EMG at diagnosis (Group 1, n=23) had significantly lower forced vital capacity (FVC), lower daytime arterial PO(2) and higher PCO(2) measurements (p<0.05) than patients with normal diaphragmatic EMG (Group 2, n=29). Twenty-eight percent of the patients without symptoms or signs of respiratory insufficiency at the time they were examined had an abnormal diaphragm EMG. Mean survival of Groups 1 and 2 were similar. However, sub-analysis of patients within each group, comparing those treated with non-invasive positive pressure ventilation (NIPPV) with those not treated, showed that treated patients in Group 1 (abnormal diaphragm EMG) survived significantly longer (p<0.05) than untreated patients. They also started NIPPV earlier than treated patients in Group 2. We conclude that respiratory muscle EMG was simply and safely performed on ALS patients at or around the time of diagnosis. The procedure can detect sub-clinical respiratory muscle dysfunction. The technique used for EMG of the respiratory muscles, its pitfalls and contraindications are also reviewed.

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Electromyography (EMG) is a diagnostic procedure that evaluates the health condition of muscles and the nerve cells that control them. These nerve cells are known as motor neurons. They transmit electrical signals that cause muscles to contract and relax. An EMG translates these signals into graphs or numbers, helping doctors to make a diagnosis.


A doctor will usually order an EMG when someone is showing symptoms of a muscle or nerve disorder. These symptoms may include tingling, numbness, or unexplained weakness in the limbs. EMG results can help the doctor diagnose muscle disorders, nerve disorders, and disorders affecting the connection between nerves and muscles.


There are two components to an EMG test: the nerve conduction study and needle EMG. The nerve conduction study is the first part of the procedure. It involves placing small sensors called surface electrodes on the skin to assess the ability of the motor neurons to send electrical signals. The second part of the EMG procedure, known as needle EMG, also uses sensors to evaluate electrical signals. The sensors are called needle electrodes, and they are directly inserted into muscle tissue to evaluate muscle activity when at rest and when contracted.


During each part of the EMG procedure, one electrode releases a very mild electrical signal while the other electrodes measure how long it takes for the signal to reach them. This mimics the natural electrical signals sent by the nerves to the muscles. The distance between the electrodes and time it takes for a signal to reach them is used to determine the speed at which the nerves are able to send and receive signals. An abnormal speed usually indicates a muscle or nerve disorder.

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This course shows you videos of the commonly studied muscles in the upper extremity, insertional activity and muscle activation and motor unit analysis techniques to help you gain a working understanding of the technical skills you need to perform needle EMG examinations. The video will focus on muscle localization and needle insertion techniques, what results you should expect, how to study the shape, amplitude and duration of motor unit waveforms, pitfalls and common errors you should watch for. Muscles studied include the First Dorsal Interosseous (FDI), the Abductor Pollicis Brevis (APB), the Flexor Carpi Radialis (FCR) the Brachio-Radialis (BR), the Triceps (TRI), the Deltoid (DEL) and the Cervical Paraspinals.

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This test measures the integrity of nerve tracts which conduct the electric impulses. It is used to assess the nature, severity and duration of the nerve lesion and in combination with EMG helps in predicting the chances of recovery after a nerve lesion.The nerves of interest are stimulated with a very low voltage electric current which causes mild tingling over the area stimulated. The test takes 20 min to 1 hour depending upon the number of nerves to be tested. It is very useful, in cases of carpal tunnel syndrome, diabetic neuropathy, traumatic neuropathy, plexopathy, varius vitamin deficiencies.

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This test is used to test the nerves and muscles in your entire lower extremity. Your doctor will usually order this test when he suspects that there may be some type of problem with the nerve supply to your foot and leg. Commonly the EMG/NCV test is used to diagnosis one of the following: Tarsal Tunnel Syndrome, Peripheral Neuropathy, Neuromuscular disorders, Nerve palsy or Paralysis, and Radioculopathy. Your doctor typically will refer you to either a hospital or a neurologist to have the test preformed.

The EMG portion of the test is used to record the electrical activity in your muscles. It can diagnose diseases of the nerves and muscles. It can detect conditions such as tarsal tunnel syndrome, inflamed muscles and pinched nerves. A tiny needle, called an electrode, is inserted directly into a specific muscle belly. The electrode then records the activity during the insertion, while the muscle is at rest, and while the muscle contracts. Nerve and muscle diseases alter the pattern of electrical activity in these muscles, which is record both audibly and on a computer screen. After the first muscle is tested, the electrode may be inserted into another muscle. Muscles chosen for the testing vary with the patient's symptoms and may be modified, depending on the results from the first muscles tested. Total testing time may range from just a few minutes to more than an hour, depending upon how many muscles are tested. After the exam, you may feel tenderness in the tested muscles. There is a slight risk of minor, localized inflammation in muscles during the test. This usually lasts only a few hours. Other common patient complaints are pain with insertion of the electrode.

Most of the time the Nerve Conduction Velocity Test will accompany the EMG Test. The NCV evaluates the health of the peripheral nerve by recording how fast electrical impulse travels through it. A peripheral nerve transmits information between the spinal cord and the muscles. You will be resting on a cart or bed and electrodes will be taped to your skin. A stimulator will be held against your skin, which sends out a small electrical charge along the nerve. You may feel a tingle or your muscles may twitch but this shock is not harmful. Each test will take only a few minutes. After the exam the electrodes will be removed and your skin cleaned. The time between the stimulation and response will be recorded to determine how quickly and thoroughly that the impulse is sent. A number of nervous system diseases may reduce the speed of this impulse. Each nerve test takes just a few minutes to an hour, depending upon how many nerves are being tested.

While the hospital or neurologist's office will give you instructions for the day of the examination, a few general preparations will help. Eat normally and take medication as you usually would. If you are taking a blood thinner, make sure you inform the testing facility and ask the ordering physician about the use of the medication and the timing of the test. Bath or shower the morning of the examination. Avoid bath oils or any skin lotions or emollients the day of the examination.


A typical EMG/NCV of the lower extremity takes approximately 45 minutes. This test is an important tool for diagnosing diseases of the nervous system, you can help ensure the best results if you relax and cooperate with the technicians. Make sure that you ask any questions that you have about the test before it is performed. Your physician will discuss the results with you. If you have any further questions regarding why this test was ordered for you, please ask your physician.



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A nerve conduction study (NCS) involves activating nerves electrically with small safe pulses over several points on the skin, usually on the limbs, and measuring the responses obtained. Usually, the response or signal is measured from the nerve itself or from a muscle supplied by the nerve being activated. This gives information about the state of health of the nerve, muscle and neuromuscular junction (the portion responsible for communication between the nerve and muscle). A commercial device is normally employed to measure the signals.

Electromyography (also known as needle EMG) involves the measuring of electrical activity within muscles by way of a needle electrode. It is rather similar to having an electrical microphone at the tip of the needle. Muscles are electrically active organs, and the signals and patterns of signals can lend additional information regarding the state of the muscle as well as the nerve supplying it.

In Australia, the person responsible for these tests is a neurologist, who frequently has had further training in the subspecialty of clinical neurophysiology.
A doctor may recommend that you undergo this test. There are a wide variety of conditions that are assessed with this technique. Quite frequently, the examination is requested because the patient is experiencing symptoms that suggest some problem with the nerves (numbness, tingling, weakness or pain) or muscles (weakness or pain), even though the physical examination is normal. Indeed, in many cases, there is no abnormality seen and the test can then be reassuring, but it cannot detect all conditions. In general terms, the test is useful for detecting if there is a significant abnormality, but this is also often easier when there is a definite clinical abnormality. In such cases, the test can help clarify what the problem is, although usually, unless the nerve problem is a common entrapment (site of compression), other tests may be required to ascertain the exact nature of the problem.
There are several types of nerves but generally speaking, the two major types are motor and sensory nerves. Motor nerves carry signals from the brain to the muscle to enable contraction and movement, and sensory nerves relay information to the brain. When the nerve is stimulated with metal electrodes (metallic patch/es that can conduct signals), a response can be measured by surface (on the skin) electrodes some distance away in sensory nerves overlying the nerve itself. For the motor nerves, the response is usually detected over the muscle that is activated by that nerve. In this fashion, results can reveal information about the size and speed of the electrically conducted impulse. The size usually reveals the number of nerve fibres present and the speed, the integrity of the myelin (insulating membrane around the nerve ‘axon’ or cable). This is why the word ‘conduction’ is used.
You will be given instructions on how to prepare for the test. You should not use creams or emollients on your hands and feet (the most common sites of your nerve tests) on the day of the test, and preferably since your last shower or bath. Generally speaking, there are no other preparations of note.

Please advise the neurologist performing the test if you have a pacemaker or other similar devices. If you are taking warfarin, heparin or some other medication to thin your blood, and if you are having a needle EMG test, you should advise both your GP and the neurologist. A measurement of how thin your blood is may be important before that test can be performed.
The NCS procedure is usually very safe and is non-invasive. Firstly, you will be told how to position yourself and the skin area will be prepared. Then some electrodes will be attached to your skin and you will be forewarned when to expect the stimulation. Many people are understandably anxious about the intensities of the small safe electrical pulses that are passed via the skin, but usually relax quickly when they know what to expect. It is faily important that you remain relaxed for the recordings to minimise the ‘noise’ (interference) in the recordings from excessive muscular activity.
Here, a small needle is inserted through the skin into a muscle belly. Sterilisation of the skin and a local anaesthetic is not generally required. Usually the consultation and procedure takes about 30-45 minutes in all. More complicated assessments may demand more time.
Following the test, you will be allowed to put on your garments and shoes. It should be noted that the final interpretation of the clinical meaning of the test rests with the clinician who ordered the test. This is because they can put together the whole picture. For this reason, the neurologist performing the test can only give you limited information about the meaning of the results, and may not even be able to provide any information on the next step or any possible treatments because they are unaware of all the other clinical information.


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Proximal conduction studies by F-wave technique, with conventional distal motor and sensory conduction were performed along the ulnar nerves of 20 patients each with cervical spondylotic radiculopathy and/or myelopathy and with classical motor neurone disease (MND). Such F-wave parameters as shortest F-latency, F-conduction velocity, conduction time and F-ratio were calculated. Twenty-five age- and sex-matched healthy volunteers acted as controls. Proximal slowing associated with sensory conduction abnormalities and normal distal motor conduction favored cervical spondylosis (CS). Distal slowing with a normal proximal motor and sensory conduction was associated with motor neurone disease.


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A nerve conduction velocity (NCV) test is used to assess nerve damage and dysfunction. Also known as a nerve conduction study, the procedure measures how quickly electrical signals move through your peripheral nerves.Your peripheral nerves are located outside of your brain and along your spinal cord. These nerves help you control your muscles and experience the senses. Healthy nerves send electrical signals more quickly and with greater strength than damaged nerves.The NVC test helps your doctor differentiate between an injury to the nerve fiber and an injury to the myelin sheath, the protective covering surrounding the nerve. It can also help your doctor tell the difference between a nerve disorder and a condition where a nerve injury has affected the muscles.Making these distinctions is important for proper diagnosis and determining your course of treatment.

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A nerve conduction velocity test (NCV) is an electrical test that is used to determine the adequacy of the conduction of the nerve impulse as it courses down a nerve. This test is used to detect signs of nerve injury. In this test, the nerve is electrically stimulated, and the electrical impulse 'down stream' from the stimulus is measured. This is usually done with surface patch electrodes (they are similar to those used for an electrocardiogram) that are placed on the skin over the nerve at various locations. One electrode stimulates the nerve with a very mild electrical impulse. The resulting electrical activity is recorded by the other electrodes. The distance between electrodes and the time it takes for electrical impulses to travel between electrodes are used to calculate the speed of impulse transmission (nerve conduction velocity). A decreased speed of transmission indicates nerve disease or abnormal pressure on the nerve. A nerve conduction velocity test is often done at the same time as an electromyogram (EMG). An EMG is carried out in order to exclude or detect muscle conditions which may be present due to muscular or neurologic disease.


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The facial nerve conduction velocity was measured in 30 healthy subjects (60 sides) and in 51 patients with a unilateral Bell's palsy. The normal value was 47.8 +/- 5.1 m/s. Incomplete recovery was common in Bell's palsy when the velocity was below 30 m/s. Mild synkinesis was observed in only one patient when the nerve conduction velocity was above 30 m/s. When the degree of degeneration revealed by electroneuroneography did not exceed 60%, the conduction velocity was in the normal range. For degrees of degeneration in excess of this, the conduction velocity decreased in parallel with the increase in the degree of degeneration.


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A somatosensory evoked potential (SSEP) is an evoked potential caused by a physical stimulus (usually a small electric pulse). Electrodes positioned over particular areas of the body record responses of the SSEP, these are then observed as a reading on an electroencephalogram (EEG).  A SSEP can most commonly involve stimulation of the median nerve at the wrist, or the posterior tibial nerve at the ankle. This investigation therefore tests the pathway of the sensory nerves to the sensory areas of the brain, even though the stimuli are non-physiological.


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Somatosensory Evoked Potentials (SSEPs) are electric signals recorded from the scalp or spine following stimulation to the peripheral nerves. They are time-locked responses, representing the function of the ascending sensory pathways. Early in the 1960s Larson et al introduced the use of somatosensory evoked potentials to monitor neural structure during neurosurgical procedures. It was utilized as a supplement to the wake-up test during correctional spinal surgeries for spinal deformities such as scoliosis to provide warning of compromised spinal cord function to the spine surgeons, as reported by McCallum et al and Nash et al in the 1970s. Since then SSEP has become one of the earliest and primary tools for intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring.


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Somatosensory Evoked Potentials (SSEPs) are electrical responses recorded from the nervous system following electrical stimulation of a peripheral nerve.  For example, stimulation of the median nerve at the wrist produces electrical activity that travels along the sensory pathway on its way to the brain. This activity can be recorded with electrodes positioned along that pathway.


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Visual Evoked Potential/ Response (VEP/VER) measures the electrical signal generated at visual cortex in response to visual stimulation. The visual cortex is primarily activated by the central visual field and there is a large presentation of the macula at occipital cortex. VEP depends on integrity of visual pathway including eye, optic nerve, chiasma, optic tract, optic radiation and cerebral cortex. Standard International Society for Clinical Electrophysiology of Vision (ISCEV) protocols[1] assess the anterior visual pathway (eye, optic nerve anterior to the optic chiasma). For dysfunctions of posterior visual pathway extended multi-channel protocols are needed.


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3D movies, 3D books, 3D printing and now 3D dental scans? Do I have to wear those funny looking glasses? Will I get motion sickness or up close and personal with all sorts of creatures? Don’t get yourself into dental distress! 3D dental scans are the newest advancement in technology that your dentist can use to get a good idea of what’s really going on with your chompers — no silly glasses needed.

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A barium enema is a type of X-ray imaging test that allows doctors to examine your lower intestinal tract. It involves delivering a contrast solution that contains the metallic element barium into your rectum while a technician takes X-ray images of the area. The barium solution will be delivered using an enema — a process in which your doctor pushes a liquid into your rectum through your anus.


The barium solution helps to improve the quality of the X-ray images by highlighting certain areas of tissue. The X-ray used in this procedure is known as fluoroscopy. It allows the radiologist to see your internal organs in motion by tracking the flow of the barium solution through your intestinal tract.


The test doesn’t require painkillers or sedation, but there may be moments of slight discomfort.

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Barium tests are used to help see the outline of the upper parts of the gut (gastrointestinal tract) such as the gullet (oesophagus), stomach and upper gut (small intestines). The gut (gastrointestinal tract) does not show up very well on ordinary X-ray pictures. However, if you drink a white liquid that contains a chemical called barium sulfate, the outline of the upper parts of the gut (oesophagus, stomach and small intestines) shows up clearly on X-ray pictures. This is because X-rays do not pass through barium.

Depending on what part of your gut is being looked at, you may have one or more of the tests listed below. In each test, the barium coats the lining of the gut being tested. Therefore, abnormalities in the lining or structure of the gut can be seen on the X-ray pictures. In each of the following tests, several X-ray pictures are taken using low-dose X-rays. The total amount of radiation for each test is quite small and thought to be safe. The X-ray machine is usually linked to a TV monitor. Still pictures, or a video recording of X-ray pictures taken in quick succession, can be taken if necessary.

In this test you drink some barium liquid. The barium liquid is often fruit-flavoured so it is pleasant to drink. You stand in front of an X-ray machine whilst X-ray pictures are taken as you swallow. This test aims to look for problems in the gullet (oesophagus). These include a narrowing (stricture), hiatus hernias, tumours, reflux from the stomach, disorders of swallowing, etc. You will usually be asked not to eat or drink for a few hours before this test. A barium swallow test takes about 10 minutes.

This is similar to a barium swallow (above). However, it aims to look for problems in the stomach and the first part of the gut (small intestine), known as the duodenum. These problems may include ulcers, small fleshy lumps (polyps), tumours, etc. You drink some barium liquid but you then lie on a couch whilst X-ray pictures are taken over your tummy (abdomen). It may take a little longer to do than a barium swallow.

So that the barium coats all around the lining of the stomach, the doctor doing the test (radiologist) may do one or more of the following:

Ask you to swallow some bicarbonate powder and citric acid before swallowing the barium. These 'fizz up' when they mix in the stomach and make some gas. (You may have to resist the urge to burp.) The gas expands the stomach and duodenum and also pushes the barium to coat the lining of the stomach and duodenum. This makes the X-ray pictures much clearer. It is the shape and contours of the lining of the stomach and duodenum which need to be seen most clearly on the pictures.

Ask you to turn over on to your stomach on the couch. Various X-ray pictures may be taken whilst you are in different positions. You may be given an injection of a drug that makes the muscles in the stomach and gut relax.You will usually be asked not to eat anything for several hours before this test. (Food particles in the gut can make it difficult to interpret the X-rays.) However, you may be allowed sips of water up to two hours before the test.


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A barium meal is a diagnostic test used to detect abnormalities of the esophagus, stomach and small bowel using X-ray imaging. X-rays can only highlight bone and other radio-opaque tissues and would not usually enable visualization of soft tissue. However, infusion of the contrast medium barium sulfate, a radioopaque salt, coats the lining of the digestive tract, allowing accurate X-ray imaging of this part of the abdomen.

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Have your dinners planned for the week within seconds!  As a Scramble member, each week you receive a suggested meal plan with:


Five family-friendly dinners complete with main course and one to two easy, healthy side dishes

Meals feature seasonal fruits and vegetables for great flavors and savings

All meals have full nutritional information by meal and by individual dish

An organized shopping list with items listed by grocery store section


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A barium swallow is an imaging test that uses X-rays to look at your upper gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Your upper GI tract includes the back of your mouth and throat (pharynx) and your esophagus.


You may have just a barium swallow. Or this test may be done as part of an upper GI series. This series looks at your esophagus, stomach, and the first part of the small intestine (duodenum).


X-rays use a small amount of radiation to create images of your bones and internal organs. X-rays are most often used to find bone or joint problems, or to check the heart and lungs. A barium swallow is one type of X-ray.


Fluoroscopy is often used during a barium swallow. Fluoroscopy is a kind of X-ray “movie.”


The test also uses barium. Barium is a substance that makes certain area of the body show up more clearly on an X-ray. The radiologist will be able to see size and shape of the pharynx and esophagus. He or she will also be able see how you swallow. These details might not be seen on a standard X-ray. Barium is used only for imaging tests for the GI tract.

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A bone density test is the only test that can diagnose osteoporosis before a broken bone occurs. This test helps to estimate the density of your bones and your chance of breaking a bone. NOF recommends a bone density test of the hip and spine by a central DXA machine to diagnose osteoporosis. DXA stands for dual energy x-ray absorptiometry.


You can find out whether you have osteoporosis or if you should be concerned about your bones by getting a bone density test. Some people also call it a bone mass measurement test. This test uses a machine to measure your bone density. It estimates the amount of bone in your hip, spine and sometimes other bones. Your test result will help your healthcare provider make recommendations to help you protect your bones.


Are you a postmenopausal woman or man age 50 and older? Have you recently broken a bone? If you answered “yes” to both questions, you should talk to your doctor or other healthcare provider about getting a bone density test if you’ve never had one.

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A carotid Doppler test is generally an outpatient procedure, states Johns Hopkins Medicine. During the test, the patient must lie on his back with his neck bent back slightly. A technician applies a gel to the skin, presses a device called a transducer against the neck, and moves it around the area of the carotid artery. The technician then repeats the process on the other side of the neck. Carotid Doppler tests do not expose patients to radiation, and they usually do not cause any discomfort.


Patients who have carotid artery blockage or narrowing sometimes experience symptoms such as dizziness, confusion, drowsiness or headache that prompt a doctor to perform a carotid Doppler test, states Johns Hopkins Medicine. Other symptoms that may indicate problems with blood flow in the carotid arteries include momentary blindness in one eye or temporary problems speaking or moving. Carotid Doppler is sometimes performed as part of an evaluation prior to major cardiac surgery.

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A Doppler ultrasound is a noninvasive test that can be used to estimate the blood flow through your blood vessels by bouncing high-frequency sound waves (ultrasound) off circulating red blood cells. A regular ultrasound uses sound waves to produce images, but can't show blood flow.


A Doppler ultrasound may help diagnose many conditions, including:


Blood clots

Poorly functioning valves in your leg veins, which can cause blood or other fluids to pool in your legs (venous insufficiency)

Heart valve defects and congenital heart disease

A blocked artery (arterial occlusion)

Decreased blood circulation into your legs (peripheral artery disease)

Bulging arteries (aneurysms)

Narrowing of an artery, such as in your neck (carotid artery stenosis)

A Doppler ultrasound can estimate how fast blood flows by measuring the rate of change in its pitch (frequency). During a Doppler ultrasound, a technician trained in ultrasound imaging (sonographer) presses a small hand-held device (transducer), about the size of a bar of soap, against your skin over the area of your body being examined, moving from one area to another as necessary.


This test may be done as an alternative to more-invasive procedures, such as angiography, which involves injecting dye into the blood vessels so that they show up clearly on X-ray images.


A Doppler ultrasound test may also help your doctor check for injuries to your arteries or to monitor certain treatments to your veins and arteries.

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Alterations of the abdominal aorta are relatively common, particularly in older people. Technological advances in the fields of ultrasonography, computed tomography, angiography, and magnetic resonance imaging have greatly increased the imaging options for the assessment of these lesions. Because it can be done rapidly and is also non-invasive, ultrasonography plays a major role in the exploration of the abdominal aorta, from its emergence from the diaphragm to its bifurcation. It is indicated for the diagnosis and follow-up of various aortic diseases, especially aneurysms. It can be used to define the shape, size, and location of these lesions, the absence or presence of thrombi and their characteristics. It is also useful for monitoring the evolution of the lesion and for postoperative follow-up. However, its value is limited in surgical planning and in emergency situations.

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This study aimed to evaluate the vascular pattern of solid breast lesions using power Doppler ultrasonography (PDUS) and assess whether the presence of intratumoural penetrating vessels can predict breast cancer malignancy.

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Carotid ultrasound uses sound waves to produce pictures of the carotid arteries in the neck which carry blood from the heart to the brain. A Doppler ultrasound study – a technique that evaluates blood flow through a blood vessel – is usually part of this exam. It’s most frequently used to screen patients for blockage or narrowing of the carotid arteries, a condition called stenosis which may increase the risk of stroke.


Little or no special preparation is required for this procedure. Leave jewelry at home and wear loose, comfortable clothing. A loose-fitting, open necked shirt or blouse is ideal.

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The use of Doppler ultrasound to assess both the changing haemodynamics of the neonatal circulation and the perfusion of the brain is reviewed. The brain is particularly susceptible to both ischaemic and haemorrhagic injury in preterm and asphyxiated infants. However, the unique characteristics of the transitional neonatal circulation, and of the cerebral vasculature, pose considerable problems in the interpretation of Doppler signals from intracranial arteries. A volumetric Doppler method which eliminates some of those problems is discussed. The same method allows full assessment of the cardiovascular status of the newborn infant, including estimation of ductal shunting and left ventricular output. Doppler ultrasound, if used with a full understanding of the inherant assumptions and limitations of the particular methodology, is likely to prove invaluable in investigating pathological cerebral and cardiac vascular events in the newborn.

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With the most advanced Echo-cardiography ultrasound and color Doppler system from Philips which uses a X- Matrix Probe (>9000 piezoelectric crystals) and break-through pure wave single crystal technology deliver high wualty images.


This is the only diagnostic centre in city doing ultrasound contrast study. 

Some of the features are unique in the machine and not available elsewhere. The machine gives extreme resolution for excellent 2D and LIVE 3D (4D) images. It has extreme color sensitivity. 3D images in cross sectional view (all three planes). VOCAL ( Volumetric organ calculation), Multislice CT like images. PANORAMIC images to include a wide area in single image. Dynamic MR to give maximum resolution, Broad band frequency compounding, harmonic imaging etc.

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A recent estimate of the number of men in the United States suffering with complete erectile dysfunction is 10 to 20 million. When partial erectile dysfunction is included, the estimate jumps to 30 million.1 Age-specific prevalence is estimated to be 5% at age 40, increasing to 15% to 25% by age 65. In clinical series, the ratio of organic to psychologic male sexual dysfunction also varies with age: 70% of patients under 35 years of age have a psychogenic cause, and 85% of patients over 50 years of age have organic impotence.2 Patient accounts of coital frequency similarly vary with age: 75% of men in their seventh decade report having coitus once monthly, and 37% of patients 60 to 69 years old describe having weekly coitus.

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Doppler ultrasonography of the lower extremity arteries is a valuable technique, although it is less frequently indicated for peripheral arterial disease than for deep vein thrombosis or varicose veins. Ultrasonography can diagnose stenosis through the direct visualization of plaques and through the analysis of the Doppler waveforms in stenotic and poststenotic arteries. To perform Doppler ultrasonography of the lower extremity arteries, the operator should be familiar with the arterial anatomy of the lower extremities, basic scanning techniques, and the parameters used in color and pulsed-wave Doppler ultrasonography.

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A Doppler ultrasound is a test that uses high-frequency sound waves to measure the amount of blood flow through your arteries and veins, usually those that supply blood to your arms and legs.


Vascular flow studies, also known as blood flow studies, can detect abnormal flow within an artery or blood vessel. This can help to diagnose and treat a variety of conditions, including blood clots and poor circulation. A Doppler ultrasound can be used as part of a blood flow study.


A Doppler ultrasound is a risk-free and pain-free procedure that requires little preparation. The test provides your doctor with important information about the flow of blood through your major arteries and veins. It can also reveal blocked or reduced blood flow through narrowed areas in the arteries, which could eventually lead to a stroke.

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A Doppler ultrasound, also called a Color Doppler test is a non-invasive test that can be used to estimate your blood flow through blood vessels. It helps doctors evaluate blood flow through major arteries and veins, such as those of the arms, legs, and neck. It can show blocked or reduced flow of blood through narrow areas in the major arteries of the neck that could cause a stroke. It also can reveal blood clots in leg veins (deep vein thrombosis, or DVT) that could break loose and block blood flow to the lungs (pulmonary embolism). During pregnancy, Doppler ultrasound may be used to look at blood flow in an unborn baby (foetus) to check the health of the foetus. 

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A prospective study comparing colour Doppler ultrasound (US) with the 'gold standard' of intra-arterial digital subtraction angiography in the evaluation of renal transplant artery stenosis was performed. Both the intrarenal vessels and the transplant renal artery were examined by Doppler US. Diagnostic arteriography was performed only if, on Doppler, the peak systolic velocity in the transplant renal artery exceeded 1.5 ms-1. Of 109 patients, the transplant artery could not be visualized using colour Doppler US in three, and these were omitted from statistical analysis. Of the remaining 106 patients, 31 had a peak systolic velocity greater than 1.5 ms-1 in the transplant renal artery and were referred for DSA. Of the multiple renal Doppler indices recorded, the peak systolic velocity in the transplant artery was the best discriminating measurement for the detection of renal artery stenosis. A peak systolic velocity of > or = 2.5 ms-1 in the transplant renal artery had a sensitivity of 100% and a specificity of 95% for the detection of renal artery stenosis ( > 50% diameter reduction). Although a significant difference in Pulsatility Index, Resistive Index, Acceleration Index and Acceleration Time was recorded from the intrarenal vessels in the angiographically normal and stenosed groups with Doppler, these measurements were less useful as discriminating diagnostic tests. In conclusion, the peak systolic velocity in the transplant renal artery is the most sensitive Doppler criterion for renal artery stenosis and is sensitive and specific enough to be used as a screening test. The intrarenal acceleration time and index should not be used in isolation.

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A device called a transducer is passed over the scrotum, directing high-frequency sound waves (ultrasound) at the structures within, including the testicle, epididymis (the tube that transports sperm from the testicle), and blood vessels. The sound waves are reflected back to the transducer and electronically converted into real-time images displayed on a viewing monitor. These images are then saved on film or video and reviewed for abnormalities.

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Color Doppler is an ultrasound-based diagnostic imaging technique used to visualize subcutaneous body structures including tendons, muscles, joints, vessels and internal organs for possible Pathology or Lesions. Colour Doppler is also used for the following applications:-

Carotid Colour Doppler to detect risk of stroke and paralysis by   evaluating the vessels   in the neck that supply blood to the brain.  Peripherial Arterial Colour Doppler.

Peripherial Venous Colour Doppler for detection of Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT).

Renal Doppler (especially for hypertensive patients and diabetics).

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Color Doppler ultrasound is a medical imaging technique which is used to provide visualization of the bloodflow, using color processing to add color to the image so that a doctor or care provider can clearly see what is happening inside the body. This technique requires the use of an ultrasound machine which is capable of color Doppler ultrasound, and can be performed in a hospital or clinic as an outpatient procedure. Having this imaging study performed is not usually painful, and the patient does not require sedatives. 

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Venous ultrasound uses sound waves to produce images of the veins in the body. It is commonly used to search for blood clots, especially in the veins of the leg – a condition often referred to as deep vein thrombosis. Ultrasound does not use ionizing radiation and has no known harmful effects.


On occasion, you may be asked not to eat or drink anything but water for six to eight hours beforehand. Otherwise, little or no special preparation is required for this procedure. Leave jewelry at home and wear loose, comfortable clothing. You may be asked to wear a gown.

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A Doppler ultrasound, also called a Color Doppler test is a non-invasive test that can be used to estimate your blood flow through blood vessels. It helps doctors evaluate blood flow through major arteries and veins, such as those of the arms, legs, and neck. It can show blocked or reduced flow of blood through narrow areas in the major arteries of the neck that could cause a stroke. It also can reveal blood clots in leg veins (deep vein thrombosis, or DVT) that could break loose and block blood flow to the lungs (pulmonary embolism). During pregnancy, Doppler ultrasound may be used to look at blood flow in an unborn baby (foetus) to check the health of the foetus.

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You will lie on a narrow table that slides into the center of the CT scanner. Most often, you will lie on your back with your arms raised above your head.

Once you are inside the scanner, the machine's x-ray beam rotates around you. Modern "spiral" scanners can perform the exam without stopping.

A computer creates separate images of the belly area, called slices. These images can be stored, viewed on a monitor, or printed on film. Three-dimensional models of the belly area can be made by stacking the slices together.

You must be still during the exam, because movement causes blurred images. You may be told to hold your breath for short periods of time.

The scan should take less than 30 minutes.

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An angiogram of the head and neck is an X-ray test that uses a special dye and camera (fluoroscopy) to take pictures of the blood flow in the blood vessels of the head and neck camera.gif. An angiogram of the neck (carotid angiogram) can be used to look at the large arteries in the neck that lead to the brain. An angiogram of the head (cerebral angiogram) can be used to look at the veins or the four arteries (four-vessel study) carrying blood to the brain.


During an angiogram, a thin, soft tube called a catheter is placed camera.gif into a blood vessel in the groin (femoral artery or vein) or just above the elbow (brachial artery or vein). The catheter is guided to the head and neck area. Then an iodine dye (contrast material) is injected into the vessel to make the area show clearly on the X-ray pictures. The angiogram pictures can be made into regular X-ray films or stored as digital pictures in a computer.


An angiogram can find a bulge in a blood vessel (aneurysm). It can also show narrowing or a blockage in a blood vessel that slows or stops blood flow. An abnormal pattern of blood vessels (arteriovenous [AV] malformation) or abnormal vessels near a tumor can be seen.


A magnetic resonance angiogram (MRA) or computed tomography angiogram (CTA) may be an option instead of a standard angiogram. Each of these tests is less invasive than an angiogram. Some MRA tests and all CTA tests require an injection of dye. A CTA also involves radiation exposure.


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This is a procedure used to evaluate the blood flow of the arteries in the arms or legs. Using image-guidance, doctors can determine if there is damage to or a blockage of blood flow in an artery. This is helpful in diagnosing certain conditions such as atherosclerosis (hardening of the blood vessel) or damage caused by trauma. This helps doctors in planning for future interventions, including vascular procedures (such as stent placement) or surgery.

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You will be asked to lie on a narrow table that slides into the center of the CT scanner.


While inside the scanner, the machine's x-ray beam rotates around you.


A computer creates many separate images of the body area, called slices. These images can be stored, viewed on a monitor, or printed on film. Three-dimensional models of the head and neck area can be created by stacking the slices together.


You must be still during the exam, because movement causes blurred images. You may be told to hold your breath for short periods of time.


Complete scans usually take only a few seconds. The newest scanners can image your entire body, head to toe, in less than 30 seconds.

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A computerized tomography (CT) coronary angiogram is an imaging test that looks at the arteries that supply blood to your heart. It might be used to diagnose the cause of chest pain or other symptoms.


A CT coronary angiogram relies on a powerful X-ray machine to produce images of your heart and its blood vessels. These tests are noninvasive and don't require recovery time. Coronary CT angiograms are increasingly an option for people with a variety of heart conditions.


A traditional (not CT-based) coronary angiogram requires that a flexible tube (catheter) be threaded through your groin or arm to your heart or coronary arteries. If you have known coronary artery disease, your doctor might recommend a traditional coronary angiogram because you can also receive treatment during that procedure.

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The first reported case of the use of computed tomography (CT) to guide biopsy was published in 1975 (1). By 1976, CT was heralded as the single most accurate method for guiding biopsy (2). With the increasing availability of CT and the development of percutaneous techniques, this statement has proved true: CT is now the imaging modality of choice for guiding percutaneous procedures. Over the following 20 years, CT-guided procedures were performed by obtaining a planning image of the region of interest and using cutaneous markers to specify a percutaneous access point. Needle advancement was documented by leaving the scanning room and obtaining one to three contiguous images at the level of the needle plane and repeating the process with each subsequent manipulation of the needle. The advent of CT fluoroscopy in the early 1990s allowed the needle to be visualized in real time, expediting the procedure and markedly reducing its overall length, partly because participants did not leave the scanning room (3). However, the use of real-time CT fluoroscopy potentially increased patient radiation dose and, for the first time, exposed physicians, nurses, and technologists to radiation.


Because CT fluoroscopy–guided procedures have become more common, they account for an important portion of the radiation dose delivered to our patient population. It has been shown that radiation dose may be significantly reduced in diagnostic CT examinations with no loss of diagnostic image quality (4). Likewise, dose should be taken into account when planning interventional procedures, and the radiation dose used should be as low as reasonably achievable to complete the procedure successfully. In this article, we discuss how patient dose is estimated and how knowledge of how a radiation dose is distributed over the course of a procedure is essential in developing low-dose protocols. If certain straightforward steps are followed, it is possible to significantly reduce radiation exposure for both patients and physicians

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Bronchoscopy is a procedure that looks inside the lung airways. It involves inserting a bronchoscope tube, with its light and small camera, through your nose or mouth, down your throat into your trachea, or windpipe, and to the bronchi and bronchioles of your lungs. This procedure is used to find the cause of a lung problem. It can detect tumors, signs of infection, excess mucus in the airways, bleeding, or blockages in the lungs. It also can allow your doctor to take samples of mucus or tissue for other laboratory tests, as well as to insert airway stents, or small tubes, to keep your airway open to treat some lung problems.


The procedure is performed using a flexible bronchoscope or a rigid bronchoscope. Flexible bronchoscopy is more common than rigid bronchoscopy, and flexible bronchoscopy usually does not require general anesthesia. Before the procedure, you will be given medicine to relax you. A liquid medicine also will be given to numb your nose and throat. If you have low blood oxygen levels during the procedure, you will be treated with oxygen therapy. If you have a lot of bleeding in your lungs or a large object is stuck in your airway, you may require rigid bronchoscopy in a hospital operating room under general anesthesia.


After the procedure, you will be monitored to make sure you don’t have complications. You may experience a sore throat, cough, or hoarseness that will go away with time. If you had the procedure as an outpatient, you likely will be able to go home after a few hours, but you will need a ride home because of the medicines or anesthesia you received. You will need to follow up with your doctor after the procedure to get your results.


Bronchoscopy is usually safe, but there is a small risk for fever, minor bleeding, or pneumonia. Pneumothorax, or collapsed lung, is a rare but serious side effect that can be treated. Your doctor may do a chest x ray after the procedure to check for lung problems.

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Computed tomography, more commonly known as a CT or CAT scan, is a diagnostic medical test that, like traditional x-rays, produces multiple images or pictures of the inside of the body.


The cross-sectional images generated during a CT scan can be reformatted in multiple planes, and can even generate three-dimensional images. These images can be viewed on a computer monitor, printed on film or transferred to a CD or DVD.


CT images of internal organs, bones, soft tissue and blood vessels provide greater detail than traditional x-rays, particularly of soft tissues and blood vessels.


A cardiac CT scan for coronary calcium is a non-invasive way of obtaining information about the presence, location and extent of calcified plaque in the coronary arteries—the vessels that supply oxygen-containing blood to the heart muscle. Calcified plaque results when there is a build-up of fat and other substances under the inner layer of the artery. This material can calcify which signals the presence of atherosclerosis, a disease of the vessel wall, also called coronary artery disease (CAD). People with this disease have an increased risk for heart attacks. In addition, over time, progression of plaque build up (CAD) can narrow the arteries or even close off blood flow to the heart. The result may be chest pain, sometimes called "angina," or a heart attack.


Because calcium is a marker of CAD, the amount of calcium detected on a cardiac CT scan is a helpful prognostic tool. The findings on cardiac CT are expressed as a calcium score. Another name for this test is coronary artery calcium scoring.

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Computed Tomography or CT Scan is one of the advanced X-ray procedures. Different from the usual X-ray, CT scan employs multiple X-ray beams and creates a detailed, 3D-like image of the body parts. CT scan of chest—also CT scan thorax—focuses on lungs and is designed for identification of various lung-related disorders. Because CT scan chest gives elaborated images of lungs, it detects and predicts the presence of lung cancer at early stages. A CT scan of abdomen provides the details of the blood vessels, bones and organs in the abdominal cavity.

Let your physician know if you have particular allergies, are pregnant, have diabetes or weigh

more than 135 kg because CT scanners have a weight limit.

Your physician may ask you to do the following prior to the scan:

1. fast for 2–4 hours,

2. stop taking particular medicines,

3. drink a large glass of oral contrast (chemicals to get better images) wait for 60–90

minutes,

4. wear a loose clothing that is comfortable and

5. remove items like dentures, jewellery, hair clips, hearing aids, eyeglasses, etc.

Depending on the type of CT scan – chest/upper abdomen, the contrast may be:

1. delivered through a vein in your forearm or hand,

2. given via the rectum using an enema or

3. taken orally in a liquid form.

CT scan is done for the following: Chest: analysing the abnormalities in the chest; detecting lung cancers or tumours and blood clots or internal injuries; monitoring the effect of lung cancer drugs on cancer; etc. Abdomen: detecting pain or a mass in the abdomen; locating kidney stones; diagnosing cancers, appendicitis, or Crohn’s disease; etc.



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Virtual colonoscopy is a minimally invasive exam to screen for cancer of the large intestine (colon cancer). Virtual colonoscopy is also known as a screening CT colonography.


Unlike traditional colonoscopy, which requires a scope to be inserted into your rectum and advanced through your colon, virtual colonoscopy uses a CT scan to produce hundreds of cross-sectional images of your abdominal organs. The images are combined and digitally manipulated to provide a detailed view of the inside of the colon and rectum.


Virtual colonoscopy is one option used to screen for colon cancer. Discuss your colon cancer screening options with your doctor to determine whether virtual colonoscopy is the right option for you.

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The spinal cord is made up of three bones: lumbar, dorsal, and cervical. The dorsal spine, the middle portion of the cord, comprises 12 vertebrae and forms the largest portion. A CT scan with a Virtualscopy test of the dorsal spine gives a 3D scanned image of the spine. It is useful in getting a clear picture of the condition of the bones and helps in detecting any abnormalities in the same. Back pain and multiple sclerosis are the most common symptoms that call for a CT scan test of the dorsal spine. It is a relatively painless procedure.

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noninvasive X-ray test that is used to diagnose a variety of medical conditions.


It provides detailed cross sectional images of the body part in question to provide more clarity and detailed images than traditional X-rays.


A CT scan of the facial area produces images of a patient’s sinus cavity.

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A CT of the head is an exam which takes thin slice images of the brain, brain stem and skull. This is very useful to diagnose stroke, trauma, congenital defects, bleeding and possible masses. A CT of the orbit is an exam which takes thin slice images of the eye and orbital socket at three different angles. This helps in the diagnosis of things such as injury, diseases and congenital effects.

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Triphasic spiral liver Computed Tomography (CT) is a standardized procedure for the detection and characterization of a large variety of benign and malignant liver lesions. This helps in the decline of mortality and morbidity rates among patients with liver disease. Spiral computed tomography has gained acceptance as the preferred computed tomography technique for routine liver evaluation because it provides image acquisition at peak enhancement of liver parenchyma during a single breath hold. In addition fast data acquisition allows successive scanning of the entire liver at different intervals after injection of the iodinated contrast material, thus creating the possibility of multiphase liver computed tomography.

Triphasic CT scan is a good non-invasive tool and can be used as first line imaging modality for differentiating benign and malignant focal liver lesions. Benign lesions like haemangioma can be reliably differentiated from malignant liver lesion; therefore unnecessary biopsies can be avoided. It is also particularly useful for hypervascular lesions which can be easily missed on routine CT scanning.



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The advent of high-resolution computed tomography (CT) scanning in the 1980s has revolutionized diagnostic imaging of the temporal bone. CT scanning offers the greatest structural definition of any currently available imaging modality. [1, 2] The purpose of this article is to familiarize the reader with the normal anatomy of the temporal bone depicted by CT scanning. The article reviews the anatomy of the middle ear space and surrounding bone and presents radiographic imaging in both axial and coronal views, with labeled salient features and relevant text.


An axial view through the superior portion of the temporal bone can be seen below.


A study by Visvanathan and Morrissey used high-resolution CT scanning to determine that temporal bone variations are not uncommon. Evaluating 339 temporal bones, the investigators found that the incidences of deep sinus tympani, anteriorly located sigmoid sinus, high dehiscent jugular bulb, enlarged internal auditory meatus, and enlarged cochlear aqueduct were 5.01%, 2.94%, 2.76%, 1.76%, and 0.58%, respectively.

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A doctor or physician may order a CT scan of the leg to make detailed pictures and analyze the internal structure. Computerized tomography (CT) scanning is useful to get a very detailed 3D image of certain parts of legs.


The process begins by taking many different X-ray views at various different angles, which are then combined with the use of computer processing to create cross-sectional images of the bones and soft tissue inside of your body, including tissues inside of solid organ. Ordinary X-ray testing does not show clear images of soft tissue, so doctors often request CT scanning to get a good image of soft tissue including organs, muscles, blood vessels, nerves, and the brain. Sometimes a contrast dye is used as it shows up clearer on the screen.


A quality CT scan of the leg will use multiple x-rays to make cross sectional pictures of the leg.

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Computed tomography (CT) of the abdomen and pelvis is a diagnostic imaging test used to help detect diseases of the small bowel, colon and other internal organs and is often used to determine the cause of unexplained pain. CT scanning is fast, painless, noninvasive and accurate. In emergency cases, it can reveal internal injuries and bleeding quickly enough to help save lives.


Tell your doctor if there’s a possibility you are pregnant and discuss any recent illnesses, medical conditions, medications you’re taking, and allergies. You will be instructed not to eat or drink anything for a few hours beforehand. If you have a known allergy to contrast material, your doctor may prescribe medications to reduce the risk of an allergic reaction. These medications must be taken 12 hours prior to your exam. Leave jewelry at home and wear loose, comfortable clothing. You may be asked to wear a gown.

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A CT scan, commonly referred to as a CAT scan, is a type of X-ray that produces cross-sectional images of a specific part of the body. In the case of a lumbar spine CT scan, your doctor can see a cross-section of your lower back. The scanning machine circles the body and sends images to a computer monitor, where they are reviewed by a technician.


The lumbar portion of the spine is a common area where back problems occur. The lumbar spine is the lowest portion of your spine. It’s made up of five vertebral bones. Below the lumbar spine is the sacrum and below the sacrum is the coccyx (tailbone). Large blood vessels, nerves, tendons, ligaments, and cartilage are also part of the lumbar spine.

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CT scanning-sometimes called CAT scanning-is a noninvasive medical test that helps physicians diagnose and treat medical conditions.


CT scanning combines special x-ray equipment with sophisticated computers to produce multiple images or pictures of the inside of the body. These cross-sectional images of the area being studied can then be examined on a computer monitor, printed or transferred to a CD.


CT scans of internal organs, bones, soft tissue and blood vessels provide greater clarity and reveal more details than regular x-ray exams.


Using specialized equipment and expertise to create and interpret CT scans of the body, radiologists can more easily diagnose problems such as cancers, cardiovascular disease, infectious disease, appendicitis, trauma and musculoskeletal disorders.

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Direct examination via endoscopy remains the criterion standard for evaluation of laryngotracheobronchial pathologic conditions. Endoscopy allows for easy visualization and accurate diagnosis of mucosal and superficial submucosal lesions. However, the evaluation of deeper structures is capable only through CT imaging or MRI. CT imaging has become the most commonly used technique for general laryngeal imaging. It is readily available at most hospitals and even at some outpatient centers. The acquisition time for a CT image is extremely short (within a matter of seconds), which is quite useful for the laryngeal examination, as patients are generally required to hold their breath to reduce movement. [1, 2]


Nevertheless, small lesions may still be difficult to visualize. In these cases, active techniques such as the Valsalva maneuver and phonation can better delineate masses of the hypoglottis and vocal cords, respectively.


MRI has also become more widely available in the past decade, although it has not surpassed CT scanning for conventional laryngeal imaging. Both techniques have advantages and disadvantages. For example, CT and MRI appear to be comparable in efficacy for defining the site and extent of disease in fat and muscle. MRI, however, is more sensitive for detecting pathologic involvement of cartilage (Glastonbury). CT imaging is best for evaluation of occult fractures and dislocations during laryngeal trauma. Furthermore, MRI seems to be the optimal method for examining cooperative patients, especially for preoperative larynx evaluation when partial laryngectomy is considered. CT imaging is more useful in patients who cannot lie still for the study (eg, inebriated, combative). The imaging study performed usually depends on the experience of the radiologist. Additionally, MRI avoids radiation exposure. For more information, please see the Medscape Reference articleMR Imaging of the Larynx.

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A computed tomography (CT) scan of the orbit is an imaging method. It uses x-rays to create detailed pictures of the eye sockets (orbits), eyes and surrounding bones.

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Computed tomography (CT) perfusion of the head uses special x-ray equipment to show which areas of the brain are adequately supplied with blood (perfused) and provides detailed information about blood flow to the brain. CT perfusion is fast, painless, noninvasive and accurate. It’s a useful technique for measuring blood flow to the brain, which may be important for treating stroke, brain blood vessel disease and brain tumors.

Computed tomography (CT) perfusion imaging shows which areas of the brain are adequately supplied or perfused with blood and provides detailed information on delivery of blood or blood flow to the brain.

CT perfusion scanning is a noninvasive medical test that helps physicians diagnose and treat medical conditions.

CT scanning combines special x-ray equipment with sophisticated computers to produce multiple images or pictures of the inside of the body. These cross-sectional images of the area being studied can then be examined on a computer monitor, printed or transferred to a CD.

CT scans of internal organs, bones, soft tissue and blood vessels provide greater clarity and reveal more details than regular x-ray exams.

In many ways CT scanning works very much like other x-ray examinations. Different body parts absorb the x-rays in varying degrees. It is this crucial difference in absorption that allows the body parts to be distinguished from one another on an x-ray film or CT electronic image.

In a conventional x-ray exam, a small amount of radiation is aimed at and passes through the part of the body being examined, recording an image on a special electronic image recording plate. Bones appear white on the x-ray; soft tissue, such as organs like the heart or liver, shows up in shades of gray, and air appears black.With CT scanning, numerous x-ray beams and a set of electronic x-ray detectors rotate around you, measuring the amount of radiation being absorbed throughout your body. Sometimes, the examination table will move during the scan, so that the x-ray beam follows a spiral path. A special computer program processes this large volume of data to create two-dimensional cross-sectional images of your body, which are then displayed on a monitor. CT imaging is sometimes compared to looking into a loaf of bread by cutting the loaf into thin slices. When the image slices are reassembled by computer software, the result is a very detailed multidimensional view of the body's interior.

Refinements in detector technology allow nearly all CT scanners to obtain multiple slices in a single rotation. These scanners, called multislice CT or multidetector CT, allow thinner slices to be obtained in a shorter period of time, resulting in more detail and additional view capabilities.


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PNS is the full form of Para Nasal Sinuses. A Computed Tomography (CT) Scan of the PNS is an imaging test of sinuses which uses X-Rays to bring out in-depth images of air-filled spaces within the bones of the face, surrounding the nasal cavity. It usually includes the upper area of the throat, behind the nose. Some doctors refer to CT Scan PNS as Sinus CT Scan also. 

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A CT scan uses X-rays to make detailed pictures camera.gif of the spine and vertebrae camera.gif.


During the test, you will lie on a table that is attached to the CT scanner, which is a large doughnut-shaped machine. The CT scanner sends X-rays through the body. Each rotation of the scanner takes a second and provides a picture of a thin slice of the organ or area being studied. One part of the scanning machine can tilt to follow the curve of your spine. All of the pictures are saved as a group on a computer. They also can be printed.


In some cases, a dye called contrast material may be put in a vein (IV) in your arm or into the spinal canal. The dye makes structures and organs easier to see on the CT pictures. The dye may be used to check blood flow and look for tumors, areas of inflammation, or nerve damage.

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The presence of tissue that normally grows inside the uterus (womb) in an abnormal anatomical location. Endometriosis is very common and may not produce symptoms, or it may lead to painful menstruation. It has also been associated with infertility. Endometriosis occurs most commonly within the Fallopian tubes and on the outside of the tubes and ovaries, the outer surface of the uterus and intestines, and anywhere on the surface of the pelvic cavity. It can also be found, less often, on the surface of the liver, in old surgery scars or, very rarely, in the lung or brain.

Endometriosis occurs in the reproductive years. The average age at diagnosis is 25-30.Endometriosis may be suspected by during a physical examination; it is confirmed by surgery, usually laparoscopy; available treatments include medication for pain, hormone therapy, and surgery.

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Abdominal and Pelvic CT scan shows the abdominal and pelvic organs of our body (such as the pancreas, liver, kidneys, spleen, and adrenal glands) and the gastrointestinal tract. A doctor usually orders this test to check for a cause of abnormal pain and sometimes to follow-up on an abnormality seen on another test such as an ultrasound.

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A CT (computed tomography) scan, which is also called a CAT scan, is a type of specialized X-ray. The scan can show cross-sectional images of a specific area of the body. With a CT scan, the machine circles the body and sends the images to a computer, where they’re viewed by a technician.


An abdominal CT scan helps your doctor see the organs, blood vessels, and bones in your abdominal cavity. The multiple images provided give your doctor many different views of your body.


Keep reading to learn why your doctor may order an abdominal CT scan, how to prepare for your procedure, and any possible risks and complications.

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Computed tomography, more commonly known as a CT or CAT scan, is a diagnostic medical test that, like traditional x-rays, produces multiple images or pictures of the inside of the body.


The cross-sectional images generated during a CT scan can be reformatted in multiple planes, and can even generate three-dimensional images. These images can be viewed on a computer monitor, printed on film or transferred to a CD or DVD.


CT images of internal organs, bones, soft tissue and blood vessels provide greater detail than traditional x-rays, particularly of soft tissues and blood vessels.


Using specialized equipment and expertise to create and interpret CT scans of the body, radiologists can more easily diagnose problems such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, infectious disease, appendicitis, trauma and musculoskeletal disorders.

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X-ray imaging, also called radiography, is a fast and easy way to identify and diagnose bone injuries and disorders such as arthritis, cancer, osteoporosis, fractures and infections. It is also used in conjunction with orthopedic surgery to ensure that a fracture or other injury has been properly aligned, and it can aid in the detection and diagnosis of abnormalities in the chest organs, including the heart and lungs. X-rays may be followed up with MRI, PET, CT, or ultrasound imaging if further testing is needed.

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A fistulogram is a special x-ray procedure. It uses a form of real-time x-ray called fluoroscopy and a barium-based contrast material to produce images of an abnormal passage within the body called a fistula. It looks at the blood flow in your fistula or graft (dialysis access). This procedure can check to see if it is blocked or if there is any narrowing (stenosis).

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Fluoroscopy is a study of moving body structures. It’s much like an X-ray "movie" and is often done while a contrast dye moves through the part of the body being examined. A continuous X-ray beam is passed through the body part and sent to a video monitor so that the body part and its motion can be seen in detail. Fluoroscopy, as an imaging tool, allows healthcare providers to look at many body systems, including the skeletal, digestive, urinary, cardiovascular, respiratory, and reproductive systems.


Fluoroscopy may be used to evaluate specific areas of the body. These include the bones, bowel, muscles, heart vessels, and joints.

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Hysterosalpingography is a procedure where x rays are taken of a woman's reproductive tract after a dye is injected.Hystero means uterus and salpingo means tubes, so hysterosalpingography literally means to take pictures of the uterusand fallopian tubes. This procedure may also be called hysterography (or HSG).As with other types of pelvic examinations, the woman will lie on her back on an examination table with her legssometimes raised in stirrups. The x-ray equipment is placed above the abdomen.A speculum is inserted into the vagina and a catheter (a thin tube) is inserted into the uterus through the cervix (theopening to the uterus). A small balloon in the catheter is inflated to hold it in place. A liquid water-based or oil-based dyeis then injected through the catheter into the uterus. This process can cause cramping, pain, and uterine spasms.As the dye spreads through the reproductive tract, the doctor may watch for blockages or abnormalities on an x-raymonitor. Several x rays will also be taken. The procedure takes approximately 15-30 minutes. The x rays will bedeveloped while the patient waits, but the final reading and interpretation of the x rays by a radiologist (a doctor whospecializes in x rays) may not be available for a few days.Interestingly, sometimes the hysterosalpingography procedure itself can be considered a treatment. The dye used cansometimes open up small blockages in the fallopian tubes. The need for additional test procedures or surgical treatmentsto deal with infertility should be discussed with the doctor.


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Intravenous pyelogram (IVP) is an x-ray exam that uses an injection of contrast material to evaluate your kidneys, ureters and bladder and help diagnose blood in the urine or pain in your side or lower back. An IVP may provide enough information to allow your doctor to treat you with medication and avoid surgery.Inform your doctor if there’s a possibility you are pregnant and discuss any recent illnesses, medical conditions, medications you’re taking and allergies, especially to iodine-based contrast materials. Your doctor may instruct you to take a mild laxative the evening before the exam and to not eat or drink anything after midnight. Wear loose, comfortable clothing and leave jewelry at home. You may be asked to wear a gown.


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Mammography is a specific type of breast imaging that uses low-dose x-rays to detect cancer early – before women experience symptoms – when it is most treatable. Tell your doctor about any breast symptoms or problems, prior surgeries, hormone use, whether you have a family or personal history of breast cancer, and if there’s a possibility you are pregnant. If possible, obtain copies of your prior mammograms and make them available to your radiologist on the day of your exam. Leave jewelry at home and wear loose, comfortable clothing. You may be asked to wear a gown. Don’t wear deodorant, talcum powder or lotion under your arms or on your breasts as these may appear on the mammogram and interfere with correct diagnosis.

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Mammography plays a central part in early detection of breast cancers because it can show changes in the breast up to two years before a patient or physician can feel them. Current guidelines from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), the American Cancer Society (ACS), the American Medical Association (AMA) and the American College of Radiology (ACR) recommend screening mammography every year for women, beginning at age 40. Research has shown that annual mammograms lead to early detection of breast cancers, when they are most curable and breast-conservation therapies are available.


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Most prostatic enlargement is due to benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), a problem that bothers men increasingly with advancing age. The process of BPH generally begins in a man's 30s, evolves very slowly and usually causes symptoms only after he has passed the half-century mark.

In BPH the normal elements of the prostate gland grow in size and number. Their sheer bulk may compress the urethra which courses through the center of the prostate and impedes the flow of urine through the urethra from the bladder to the outside. The urethral compression leads to urine retention and the need for frequent urination. If severe enough, complete blockage can occur.
BPH is very common. Half of all men over 50 develop symptoms of PBH, but only 10% need medical or surgical intervention.
BPH is completely benign. It is not a precursor (a forerunner) to prostate cancer.
Treatment of BPH is usually reserved for men with significant symptoms. Watchful waiting with medical monitoring once a year is appropriate for most men with BPH.
The medical therapy of BPH includes medication. The prostate enlargement in BPH is directly dependent on dihydrotestosterone (DHT), the principal androgen hormone in the prostate, certain medication blocks the enzyme needed to make DHT and so lowers blood and tissue DHT levels and helps reduce the size of the prostate. Other medication belongs to a class of drugs called alpha-1 blockers which relax the smooth muscle of the prostate and the bladder neck. Relaxing these muscles helps relieve the urinary obstruction caused by the enlarged prostate
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A micturating cysto-urethrogram (or MCU) is a study using X-rays that shows the bladder and urethra (the tube that carries urine from the bladder and out of the body) while passing urine (see children’s X-ray examination). The test is performed to find out if the urine goes from the bladder back up to the kidneys instead of out through the urethra, known as vesico-ureteric reflux (VUR). This can be the cause of recurrent urinary tract (in the bladder or kidneys) infection and kidney damage. The test also shows how the bladder empties and what the urethra looks like.This test is most commonly performed on children under six months of age, but can be used less commonly as an investigation for older children and adults with multiple recurrent urinary tract infections.


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MR angiography (MRA) uses a powerful magnetic field, radio waves and a computer to evaluate blood vessels and help identify abnormalities or diagnose atherosclerotic (plaque) disease. This exam does not use ionizing radiation and may require an injection of a contrast material called gadolinium, which is less likely to cause an allergic reaction than iodinated contrast material. Tell your doctor about any health problems, recent surgeries or allergies and whether there’s a possibility you are pregnant. The magnetic field is not harmful, but it may cause some medical devices to malfunction. Most orthopedic implants pose no risk, but you should always tell the technologist if you have any devices or metal in your body. In some instances, your doctor will provide you with a card that includes information about your implant to give to the technologist. Guidelines about eating and drinking before your exam vary between facilities. Unless you are told otherwise, take your regular medications as usual. Leave jewelry at home and wear loose, comfortable clothing. You may be asked to wear a gown. If you have claustrophobia or anxiety, you may want to ask your doctor for a mild sedative prior to the exam.


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Constipation has a high prevalence in the general population and is a cause for significant morbidity. It has been estimated that approximately 10% of the Indian population suffers from constipation. [1] Chronic constipation leads to approximately 2.5 million visits to the physicians in the United States annually. [2] Various definitions have been used for chronic constipation. However, recently, the Rome II criteria were developed to promote consistency in the diagnosis. [3] Constipation may be primary or secondary. Primary constipation may be due to slow transit disorder or anorectal expulsion disorder (obstructive defecation) or a combination of these. According to the National Institute for health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) guidelines issued in 2010, obstructed defecation syndrome (ODS) is characterized by the urge to defecate but an impaired ability to expel the fecal bolus. Symptoms include unsuccessful fecal evacuation attempts, excessive straining, pain, bleeding after defecation, and a sense of incomplete fecal evacuation. [4] Patients may also resort to digital rectal evacuation. Evaluation and treatment of these patients has been difficult. Magnetic resonance defecography (MRD) has been shown to demonstrate the structural abnormalities associated with ODS, and patients with significant structural abnormalities may benefit from surgical interventions like stapled transanal resection of rectum (STARR). Patients who do not demonstrate significant structural abnormalities can be referred for biofeedback techniques. We present our experience in a large series of patients with suspected ODS who underwent MRD at our tertiary care center.


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Mammography is a screening tool for breast cancer. At NM Medical we employ advanced digital imaging technology for the dual benefits of optimum diagnostic quality and maximum patient comfort. Mammography is important because in its earliest stages breast cancer may not be palpable; it may be too small to feel as a lump or tissue change. Mammography can help detect these changes two years or more before you would feel them. Physical examination is also important because pre-menopausal breast tissue is often dense and fibrous, which may decrease the reliability of mammography for young women.

  

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You can have peace of mind that we place you first with a focus on giving you comprehensive benefits, value for money and services to improve the quality of care available to you. As a Discovery Health Medical Scheme member you have access to the broadest and best level of healthcare cover in the market based on your medical condition needs. Depending on your medical aid plan, we cover for in- and out-hospital tests and screening, including investigations, radiology and blood tests, vaccinations for adults and children and blood tests


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MR spectroscopy (MRS) allows tissue to be interrogated for the presence and concentration of various metabolites. Grossman and Yousem said "If you need this to help you, go back to page 1; everything except Canavan has low NAA, high Choline". This is perhaps a little harsh, however it is fair to say that MRS often does not add a great deal to an overall MR study but does increase specificity, and may help in improving our ability to predict histological grade.


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Diffusion tensor imaging tractography, or DTI tractography, is an MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) technique that measures the rate of water diffusion between cells to understand and create a map of the body’s internal structures; it is most commonly used to provide imaging of the brain. This advanced imaging technique, which provides much more detailed images of the brain than a conventional MRI, may also be used in the diagnosis of stroke, acute ischemia, brain tumors and multiple sclerosis, as well as pre-operative planning.  Using MRI technology, DTI tractography is non-invasive and uses radio waves and a magnetic field to produce images of the brain, tissues and skull. MRI technology provides detailed images showing small changes in body tissue and blood flow, which makes it an extremely reliable tool for the detection of disease, injury, bleeding and swelling.  Loyola offers state-of-the-art imaging and diagnostic techniques in order to provide timely and accurate diagnosis for our patients. Our expert radiologists are recognized nationally for clinical excellence, innovative diagnostic and therapeutic methods and skilled use of the latest technology. Our experienced technologists provide testing in a caring and compassionate environment where we want you to feel comfortable asking any questions you may have about your test or procedure. 


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Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography or MRCP uses a powerful magnetic field, radio waves and a computer to evaluate the liver, gallbladder, bile ducts, pancreas and pancreatic duct for disease. It is noninvasive and does not use ionizing radiation. Tell your doctor about any health problems, recent surgeries or allergies and whether there’s a possibility you are pregnant. The magnetic field is not harmful, but it may cause some medical devices to malfunction. Most orthopedic implants pose no risk, but you should always tell the technologist if you have any devices or metal in your body. Guidelines about eating and drinking before your exam vary between facilities. Unless you are told otherwise, take your regular medications as usual. Leave jewelry at home and wear loose, comfortable clothing. You may be asked to wear a gown. If you have claustrophobia or anxiety, you may want to ask your doctor for a mild sedative prior to the exam


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A magnetic resonance angiogram (MRA) is a type of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan that uses a magnetic field and pulses of radio wave energy to provide pictures of blood vessels inside the body. In many cases MRA can provide information that can't be obtained from an X-ray, ultrasound, or computed tomography (CT) scan. MRA can find problems with the blood vessels that may be causing reduced blood flow. With MRA, both the blood flow and the condition of the blood vessel walls can be seen. The test is often used to look at the blood vessels that go to the brain, kidneys, and legs. Information from an MRA can be saved and stored on a computer for further study. Photographs of selected views can also be made.During MRA, the area of the body being studied is placed inside an MRI machine. Contrast material is often used during MRA to make blood vessels show up more clearly.


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Ankle pain and ankle injuries are common. Physicians must carefully eliminate other conditions before making an ankle arthritis diagnosis. Physicians use a comprehensive approach that is verified by diagnostic imaging to arrive at a clinical diagnosis.Below is a description of the process physicians use to determine if a patient’s symptoms are caused by ankle osteoarthritis.

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Magnetic resonance (MR) imaging has opened new horizons in the diagnosis and treatment of many musculoskeletal diseases of the ankle and foot. It demonstrates abnormalities in the bones and soft tissues before they become evident at other imaging modalities. The exquisite soft-tissue contrast resolution, noninvasive nature, and multiplanar capabilities of MR imaging make it especially valuable for the detection and assessment of a variety of soft-tissue disorders of the ligaments (eg, sprain), tendons (tendinosis, peritendinosis, tenosynovitis, entrapment, rupture, dislocation), and other soft-tissue structures (eg, anterolateral impingement syndrome, sinus tarsi syndrome, compressive neuropathies [eg, tarsal tunnel syndrome, Morton neuroma], synovial disorders). MR imaging has also been shown to be highly sensitive in the detection and staging of a number of musculoskeletal infections including cellulitis, soft-tissue abscesses, and osteomyelitis. In addition, MR imaging is excellent for the early detection and assessment of a number of osseous abnormalities such as bone contusions, stress and insufficiency fractures, osteochondral fractures, osteonecrosis, and transient bone marrow edema. MR imaging is increasingly being recognized as the modality of choice for assessment of pathologic conditions of the ankle and foot.


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Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain is a safe and painless test that uses a magnetic field and radio waves to produce detailed images of the brain and the brain stem. An MRI differs from a CAT scan (also called a CT scan or a computed axial tomography scan) because it does not use radiation. An MRI scanner consists of a large doughnut-shaped magnet that often has a tunnel in the center. Patients are placed on a table that slides into the tunnel. Some centers have open MRI machines that have larger openings and are helpful for patients with claustrophobia. MRI machines are located in hospitals and radiology centers. During the exam, radio waves manipulate the magnetic position of the atoms of the body, which are picked up by a powerful antenna and sent to a computer. The computer performs millions of calculations, resulting in clear, cross-sectional black and white images of the body. These images can be converted into three-dimensional (3-D) pictures of the scanned area. This helps pinpoint problems in the brain and the brain stem when the scan focuses on those areas.


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Magnetic Resonance Imaging is a highly advanced imaging modality. Epilepsy Protocol MRI involves obtaining images of brain slices through MRI scanning in epileptic patients. This scanning enables the doctor in obtaining evidences of abnormalities or injuries in brain. Underlying pathologies inside of brain like infections or tumors cannot be seen externally. Such occurrences can be investigated through an MRI Epilepsy Protocol. As a result, MRI becomes the most accurate mode for planning line of treatment.


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HE  MRI technician should be informed if you have any inner ear implants, artificial joints, a defibrillator or pacemaker, particular types of heart valves, vascular stents, brain aneurysm clips.

The staff will ask you to remove anything that contains metal, including jewelry, sunglasses or any electronic gadgets. All these interferes with the MRI machine’s ability to produce a clear image. Braces and dental fillings will typically not pose a problem, but pens, pins, and certain dental appliances can interfere. 

In the case of implants and pacemakers, those items can stop working properly due to an MRI’s magnetic field.

You will be asked to wear a hospital gown or clothing that doesn’t contain metal fasteners. 

Lastly if you’re pregnant , kindly inform the staff, the doctor may postponed the test if required.

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Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the chest uses a powerful magnetic field, radio waves and a computer to produce detailed pictures of the structures within the chest. It is primarily used to assess abnormal masses such as cancer and determine the size, extent and degree of its spread to adjacent structures. It’s also used to assess the anatomy and function of the heart and its blood flow. Tell your doctor about any health problems, recent surgeries or allergies and whether there’s a possibility you are pregnant. The magnetic field is not harmful, but it may cause some medical devices to malfunction. Most orthopedic implants pose no risk, but you should always tell the technologist if you have any devices or metal in your body. Guidelines about eating and drinking before your exam vary between facilities. Unless you are told otherwise, take your regular medications as usual. Leave jewelry at home and wear loose, comfortable clothing. You may be asked to wear a gown. If you have claustrophobia or anxiety, you may want to ask your doctor for a mild sedative prior to the exam.


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CSF flow studies are performed using a variety of MRI techniques and are able to qualitatively assess and quantify pulsatile CSF flow. The most common technique used is time resolved 2D phase contrast MRI with velocity encoding. Note, when referring to CSF flow in the setting on imaging we are referring to pulsatile to-and-fro flow due to vascular pulsations rather than bulk transport of CSF (the mechanism by which produced CSF is absorbed, via absorption at arachnoid granulations and via the glymphatic pathway). The latter is too slow to be easily assessed clinically. 


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The anatomy of the craniovertebral junction, although complex, may be well visualized by routine MR imaging. This essay discusses the anatomy of the complex articulations of the craniovertebral junction. Representative MR images and gross anatomic photographs are presented to illustrate the intricate ligamentous and articular anatomy. Knowledge of the normal anatomy of the occipitoatlantoaxial region is necessary in order to understand the common disorders that affect this area. The most common disorders are trauma and arthropathies, but also include congenital abnormalities and neoplasm. The resultant abnormal mechanics may lead to neurologic sequelae or pain

 

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 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) of the dorsal spine is a non invasive process used to scan the dorsal section of your spinal cord. It uses radio waves and high intensity magnetic fields to learn about the internal tissue structures of the dorsal spine. This scanning technique is used for various diagnostic as well as treatment purposes


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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a noninvasive medical test that helps physicians diagnose and treat medical conditions. MR imaging uses a powerful magnetic field, radio frequency pulses and a computer to produce detailed pictures of organs, soft tissues, bone and virtually all other internal body structures. The images can then be examined on a computer monitor, transmitted electronically, printed or copied to a CD. MRI does not use ionizing radiation (X-rays). Detailed MR images allow physicians to better evaluate various parts of the body and determine the presence of certain diseases that may not be assessed adequately with other imaging methods such as x-ray, ultrasound or computed tomography (also called CT or CAT scanning)


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The right hip pain diagnosis is essential to obtaining the right care. Specialization and unmatched experience are the hallmarks of the Center for Hip Preservation’s medical staff. The advanced hip pain tests available at our center assist our specialists in making the right diagnosis and pursuing the right treatment. Both a physical examination and radiological examinations are conducted to diagnose hip joint pain. Without an official reading by an experienced radiologist, subtle X-ray findings (e.g., tears, infections, systematic diseases, tumors, etc.) may remain undetected until such time as an abnormality has progressed to the point where a non-imaging specialist may identify it. Delays in diagnosis add to medical cost and may considerably effect treatment and ultimate patient outcome. The skilled staff members at the Center for Hip Preservation help patients and families understand their hip pain and all of the treatment options available.


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Pruritus ani is the irritation of the skin at the exit of the rectum, known as the anus, causing the desire to scratch. The intensity of anal itching increases from moisture, pressure, and rubbing caused by clothing and sitting. At worst, anal itching causes intolerable discomfort that often is accompanied by burning and soreness. It is estimated that up to 5% of the population of the United States experiences this type of discomfort daily

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Erectile dysfunction is a common health condition affecting millions of men worldwide. It shadows their self-confidence and intimate lives. Such a condition can impact your personal life as it snatches away the excitement of getting intimate with your partner. Therefore, understanding all symptoms along with the erectile dysfunction causes is vital for a fulfilling sexual life. This article is a comprehensive guide to determining early signs of erectile dysfunction and treatments for ED. We will also discuss some major causes and treatments of this condition.

What is Erectile Dysfunction?

ED is a medical condition. Here, a man cannot achieve and maintain an erection which is necessary for satisfactory sexual performance. The major causes of this condition are:


People suffering from physiological conditions also get ED treatment. If you are making bad lifestyle choices like excessive alcohol consumption and no exercise, it also contributes to this condition. 


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Hip pain is a common and disabling condition that affects patients of all ages. The differential diagnosis of hip pain is broad, presenting a diagnostic challenge. Patients often express that their hip pain is localized to one of three anatomic regions: the anterior hip and groin, the posterior hip and buttock, or the lateral hip. Anterior hip and groin pain is commonly associated with intra-articular pathology, such as osteoarthritis and hip labral tears. Posterior hip pain is associated with piriformis syndrome, sacroiliac joint dysfunction, lumbar radiculopathy, and less commonly ischiofemoral impingement and vascular claudication. Lateral hip pain occurs with greater trochanteric pain syndrome. Clinical examination tests, although helpful, are not highly sensitive or specific for most diagnoses; however, a rational approach to the hip examination can be used. Radiography should be performed if acute fracture, dislocations, or stress fractures are suspected. Initial plain radiography of the hip should include an anteroposterior view of the pelvis and frog-leg lateral view of the symptomatic hip. Magnetic resonance imaging should be performed if the history and plain radiograph results are not diagnostic. Magnetic resonance imaging is valuable for the detection of occult traumatic fractures, stress fractures, and osteonecrosis of the femoral head. Magnetic resonance arthrography is the diagnostic test of choice for labral tears.


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Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the knee uses a powerful magnetic field, radio waves and a computer to produce detailed pictures of the structures within the knee joint. It is typically used to help diagnose or evaluate pain, weakness, swelling or bleeding in and around the joint. Knee MRI does not use ionizing radiation, and it can help determine whether you require surgery. Tell your doctor about any health problems, recent surgeries or allergies and whether there’s a possibility you are pregnant. The magnetic field is not harmful, but it may cause some medical devices to malfunction. Most orthopedic implants pose no risk, but you should always tell the technologist if you have any devices or metal in your body. Guidelines about eating and drinking before your exam vary between facilities. Unless you are told otherwise, take your regular medications as usual. Leave jewelry at home and wear loose, comfortable clothing. You may be asked to wear a gown. If you have claustrophobia or anxiety, you may want to ask your doctor for a mild sedative prior to the exam.


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 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a test done with a large machine that uses a magnetic field and pulses of radio wave energy to make pictures of organs and structures inside the belly. In many cases MRI gives information about structures in the body that cannot be seen as well with an X-ray, ultrasound, or CT scan. For an MRI test, you are placed inside the magnet so that your belly is inside the strong magnetic field. MRI can find changes in the structure of organs or other tissues. It also can find tissue damage or disease, such as infection or a tumor. Pictures from an MRI scan are digital images that can be saved and stored on a computer for further study. The images also can be reviewed remotely, such as in a clinic or an operating room. Photographs or films of selected pictures can also be made.In some cases, contrast material may be used during the MRI scan to show certain structures more clearly in the pictures. The contrast material may be used to check blood flow, find some types of tumors, and show areas of inflammation or infection.


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 An MRI scan uses magnets and radio waves to capture images inside your body without making a surgical incision. The scan allows your doctor to see the soft tissue of your body, like muscles and organs, in addition to your bones. An MRI can be performed on any part of your body. A lumbar MRI specifically examines the lumbar section of your spine — the region where back problems commonly originate.The lumbosacral spine is made up of the five lumbar vertebral bones (L1 thru L5), the sacrum (the bony “shield” at the bottom of your spine), and the coccyx (tailbone). The lumbosacral spine also consists of large blood vessels, nerves, tendons, ligaments, and cartilage.


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Myelography uses a real-time form of x-ray called fluoroscopy and an injection of contrast material to evaluate the spinal cord, nerve roots and spinal lining (meninges). It is particularly useful for assessing the spine following surgery and for assessing disc abnormalities in patients who cannot undergo MRI. You will be instructed on how to prepare. Tell your doctor if there’s a possibility you are pregnant and discuss any recent illnesses, medical conditions, medications you’re taking and allergies, especially to iodinated contrast materials. You may be advised to stop taking blood thinners or other medications several days prior to your exam. You also may be told to avoid solid food and increase your fluid intake beforehand. Leave jewelry at home and wear loose, comfortable clothing. You may be asked to wear a gown.


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Neoplastic disease of the nose, paranasal sinuses, the nasopharynx and the parapharyngeal space requires thorough assessment of location and extent in order to plan appropriate treatment. CT allows the deep soft tissue planes to be evaluated and provides a complement to the physical examination. It is especially helpful in regions involving thin bony structures (paranasal sinuses, orbita); here CT performs better than MRI. MRI possesses many advantages over other imaging modalities caused by its excellent tissue contrast. In evaluating regions involving predominantly soft tissue structures (ec nasopharynx and parapharyngeal space) MRI is superior to CT. The possibility to obtain strictly consecutive volume data sets with spiral CT or 3D MRI offer excellent perspectives to visualize the data via 2D or 3D postprocessing. Because head and neck tumors reside in a complex area, having a 3D model of the anatomical features may assist in the delineation of pathology. Data sets may be transferred directly into computer systems and thus be used in computer assisted surgery.


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Head and neck MRI uses a strong magnetic field combined with radiofrequency waves to create highly detailed, cross-sectional images of internal structures in the head and neck area; these scans are examined for abnormalities. For certain studies, an MRI contrast dye such as gadolinium may be injected to provide better definition of soft tissues and blood vessels and thus enhance the images. Head and neck MRI is used to detect abnormalities outside of the skull.


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Orbit/Face MRI is a painless radiology exam which may be performed to help visualize the face area in a non-invasive manner. It aids doctors in visualizing tumors, infection, inflammation, and any neck disorders that a patient might have.


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A pelvis MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scan is an imaging test that uses a machine with powerful magnets and radio waves to create pictures of the area between the hip bones. This part of the body is called the pelvic area. Structures inside and near the pelvis include the bladder, prostate and other male reproductive organs, female reproductive organs, lymph nodes, large bowel, small bowel, and pelvic bones. An MRI does not use radiation. Single MRI images are called slices. The images are stored on a computer or printed on film. One exam produces dozens or sometimes hundreds of images.


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Pituitary gland plays a central role in body growth, metabolism, and reproductive function. A number of diseases that affect the pituitary-hypothalamic axis can have profound clinical, endocrinological as well as neurological consequences. These conditions can be classified as neoplastic, infectious, inflammatory, posttraumatic, congenital/developmental, and physiological. Various neoplastic conditions include pituitary adenoma/apoplexy, hypothalamic glioma, craniopharyngioma, rathke cleft cyst, germinoma, teratoma, metastasis, leukemic infiltration, lymphoma, and Langerhans cell histiocytosis. Infectious and inflammatory causes include tubercular/lymphocytic hypophysitis, sarcoidosis, and Wegener's granulomatosis. Traumatic causes include postoperative sella or transection of the pituitary stalk. Accurate diagnostic differentiation of these lesions is essential for both safe and effective disease management. Recent advances in neuroimaging helps the radiologists and endocrinologists to study the pituitary region in greater detail. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the imaging modality of choice for evaluating hypothalamic-pituitary-related endocrine diseases.

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Erectile dysfunction (ED) is the inability to get or keep an erection firm enough to have sexual intercourse. It’s also sometimes referred to as impotence.


Occasional ED isn’t uncommon. Many men experience it during times of stress. Frequent ED can be a sign of health problems that need treatment. It can also be a sign of emotional or relationship difficulties that may need to be addressed by a professional.


Not all male sexual problems are caused by ED. Other types of male sexual dysfunction include:

premature ejaculation

delayed or absent ejaculation

lack of interest in sex

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Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the shoulder uses a powerful magnetic field, radio waves and a computer to produce detailed pictures of the bones, tendons, muscles and blood vessels within the shoulder joint. It is primarily used to assess injuries. Tell your doctor about any health problems, recent surgeries or allergies and whether there’s a possibility you are pregnant. The magnetic field is not harmful, but it may cause some medical devices to malfunction. Most orthopedic implants pose no risk, but you should always tell the technologist if you have any devices or metal in your body. Guidelines about eating and drinking before your exam vary between facilities. Unless you are told otherwise, take your regular medications as usual. Leave jewelry at home and wear loose, comfortable clothing. You may be asked to wear a gown. If you have claustrophobia or anxiety, you may want to ask your doctor for a mild sedative prior to the exam.


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Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) dysfunction is a common condition that is best evaluated with magnetic resonance (MR) imaging. The first step in MR imaging of the TMJ is to evaluate the articular disk, or meniscus, in terms of its morphologic features and its location relative to the condyle in both closed- and open-mouth positions. Disk location is of prime importance because the presence of a displaced disk is a critical sign of TMJ dysfunction. However, disk displacement is also frequently seen in asymptomatic volunteers, so that other findings may be required to help make the diagnosis. These findings include thickening of an attachment of the lateral pterygoid muscle, rupture of retrodiskal layers, and joint effusion and can serve as indirect early signs of TMJ dysfunction. It is important for the radiologist to detect early MR imaging signs of dysfunction, thereby avoiding the evolution of this condition to its final stage, an advanced and irreversible phase that is characterized by osteoarthritic changes such as condylar flattening or osteophytes. Further studies conducted with the latest MR imaging techniques will allow a better understanding of the sources of TMJ pain and of any discrepancy between imaging findings and patient symptoms.


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The purpose of this study was to correlate disc position and the type of disc displacement, intra-capsular effusion and degenerative changes of the condyle as demonstrated in MRI studies. In this study, 126 temporomandibular joints (TMJs) of 63 patients with TMJ disorders were investigated using clinical examination and MRI. One hundred and twelve TMJs were found to have internal derangement as disc displacement. The angle between the posterior margin of the disc and the vertical line drawn through the centre of the condyle was measured on MRI for each TMJ. The positions of the discs were normal, 0 degrees-10 degrees, in 11.11%; slightly displaced, 11 degrees-30 degrees, in 37.30%; mildly displaced 31 degrees-50 degrees, in 15.08%; moderately displaced, 51 degrees-80 degrees, in 7.14% of the TMJs with anterior displacement with reduction (ADDR). The disc position was severely displaced anteriorly, as over 80 degrees, in all TMJs with anterior disc displacement without reduction (ADD), constituting 27.78% of all cases. We found that the smaller the degree of disc displacement the milder the internal derangement and that the intra-capsular effusion was more frequently associated with TMJ with ADDR. The degenerative condylar changes were more severe with an increased degree of anterior disc displacement.


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Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) is a special type of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) exam that produces detailed images of the hepatobiliary and pancreatic systems, including the liver, gallbladder, bile ducts, pancreas and pancreatic duct. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a non-invasive medical test that physicians use to diagnose and treat medical conditions.MRI uses a powerful magnetic field, radio frequency pulses and a computer to produce detailed pictures of organs, soft tissues, bone and virtually all other internal body structures. MRI does not use ionizing radiation (x-rays). Detailed MR images allow physicians to evaluate various parts of the body and determine the presence of certain diseases.

Doctors use MRCP to examine diseases of the liver, gallbladder, bile ducts, pancreas and pancreatic duct. These may include tumours, stones, inflammation or infection evaluate patients with pancreatitis to detect the underlying cause. In patients with pancreatitis, an MRCP may be performed using a medication called Secretin to assess for long term scarring and to determine the amount of healthy pancreatic function and secretions help to diagnose unexplained abdominal pain and provide a less invasive alternative to endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). ERCP is a diagnostic procedure that combines endoscopy, which uses an illuminated optical instrument to examine inside the body, with iodinated contrast injection and x-ray images. You may be asked to wear a gown during the exam or you may be allowed to wear your own clothing if it is loose-fitting and has no metal fasteners. Guidelines about eating and drinking before an MRI exam vary. Usually, you will be instructed not to eat or drink anything for several hours before your procedure.Jewellery and other accessories should be left at home if possible, or removed prior to the MRI scan. Because they can interfere with the magnetic field of the MRI unit, metal and electronic items are not allowed in the exam room. In general, metal objects used in orthopaedic surgery pose no risk during MRI. However, a recently placed artificial joint may require the use of another imaging procedure. If there is any question of their presence, an x-ray may be taken to detect and identify any metal objects.


You will usually be alone in the exam room during the MRI procedure. However, the technologist will be able to see, hear and speak with you at all times using a two-way intercom. Many MRI centres allow a friend or parent to stay in the room as long as they are also screened for safety in the magnetic environment.  A radiologist, a physician specifically trained to supervise and interpret radiology examinations, will analyze the images and send a signed report to your primary care or referring physician, who will share the results with you.


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Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is an advanced medical imaging technique that does not use x-rays or radiation. Instead it uses a strong magnetic field, radio waves, and a computer. This creates very clear pictures of internal body structures. An MRI is used to examine soft tissues like organs, muscles, tendons, & blood vessels in many parts of the body. This includes areas of the brain, spine, abdomen, chest, pelvis, and joints (like knees and shoulders). The MRI image offers unique information to help your doctor better plan your treatment and care.


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A Whole Spine MRI Scan is an imaging test done to access the spinal anatomy and investigate the causes of a patient's back pain. The MRI can find changes in the spine and other tissues. MRI scans are needed when other imaging tests like X-ray, and CT scan fails to obtain any critical information and conservative treatment has stopped working or responding well. A Whole Spine MRI Scan is recommended to better diagnose the problems with your spine and provide an alternative treatment. The MRI Scan can also find problems such as infection or a tumour.


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Pulmonary function tests are a broad range of tests that measure how well the lungs take in and exhale air and how efficiently they transfer oxygen into the blood. Spirometry measures how well the lungs exhale. The information gathered during this test is useful in diagnosing certain types of lung disorders, but is most useful when assessing for obstructive lung diseases (especially asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, COPD). Lung volume measurement detects restrictive lung diseases. In this set of diseases, a person cannot inhale a normal volume of air. Restrictive lung diseases may be caused by inflammation or scarring of the lung tissue (interstitial lung disease) or by abnormalities of the muscles or skeleton of the chest wall. Testing the diffusion capacity (also called the DLCO) permits an estimate of how efficiently the lungs transfer oxygen from the air into the bloodstream.


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A retrograde urethrogram is a routine radiologic procedure (most typically in males) used to image the integrity of the urethra. Hence a retrograde urethrogram is essential for diagnosis of urethral injury, or urethral stricture. The procedure involves the insertion of a Foley catheter into the distal urethra and minimally inflating it. This is followed by instillation of 30mL of water-soluble contrast and a plain radiograph is obtained; leakage of the contrast suggests urethral injury (usually secondary to pelvic trauma) and is an indication for surgical intervention.It is used when there is suspicion of urethral trauma, such as a history of trauma to the area followed by pain, inability to void urine, or the presence of blood at the urethral meatus, a scrotal hematoma, or free-floating prostate on rectal examination. If a urethral injury is suspected, a retrograde urethrogram should be performed before attempting to place a Foley catheter into the bladder. If there is a urethral disruption, a suprapubic catheter should be placed.

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A fistulogram uses a form of real-time x-ray called fluoroscopy and a barium-based contrast material to produce images of an abnormal passage within the body called a fistula. Similarly, a sinogram assesses an abnormal passage called a sinus that originates or ends in one opening, often on the skin. Both examinations are used to assess and diagnose the size and shape of fistulas and sinuses and any related abscess and/or infection. You will be instructed on how to prepare. You may be asked to refrain from eating or drinking anything for several hours before the examination, but you should be allowed to take medications with small amounts of clear fluid up to two hours prior. Tell your doctor if there’s a possibility you are pregnant and discuss any recent illnesses, medical conditions, medications you’re taking and allergies, especially to contrast materials. Leave jewelry at home and wear loose, comfortable clothing. You may be asked to wear a gown


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Ultrasound imaging also called as sonography uses a transducer or probe to generate sound waves and produce pictures of the body's internal structures. It is often used to help diagnose unexplained pain, swelling or infection. It is used to see internal body structures such as tendons, muscles, joints, vessels and internal organs. It may also be used to provide imaging guidance to needle biopsies or to see and evaluate conditions related to blood flow. It is also the preferred imaging method for monitoring a pregnant woman and her unborn child. It does not use ionizing radiation, has no known harmful effects, and provides a clear picture of soft tissues that don't show up well on x-ray images.Most of these level II ultrasounds should be done in the second trimester of pregnancy usually between 18 and 22 weeks. It uses sound waves to produce pictures of a baby (embryo or fetus) within a pregnant woman, as well as the mother's uterus and ovaries. It does not use ionizing radiation, has no known harmful effects, and is the preferred method for monitoring pregnant women and their unborn babies. A Doppler ultrasound study – a technique that evaluates blood flow in the umbilical cord, fetus or placenta – may be part of this exam. It is a totally painless and safe procedure. It is useful test to establish the presence of fetus, estimate the age of pregnancy, diagnose congenital abnormalities of the fetus, assess fetal growth and well being etc. Preparation - No special preparation is needed.


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A chalazion usually appears as a painless lump or swelling on your upper or lower eyelid. Chalazia may affect both upper and lower lids and can occur in both eyes at the same time. Depending on the size and location of the chalazion, it may blur or block vision.

Although not as common, a chalazion may be red, swollen, and painful if an infection is present.

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Your doctor has requested an ultrasound-guided biopsy. The goal of a biopsy is to remove a sample of tissue for testing in a laboratory. A biopsy can help diagnose abnormalities such as infection, inflammation or malignancy. During your biopsy, an imaging physician will use an ultrasound scanner to accurately guide a needle to the site of the biopsy. The needle will then be used to remove a tissue sample. At the S. Mark Taper Foundation Imaging Center, a highly trained medical team will oversee your procedure. This team will include an imaging physician, a diagnostic medical sonographer and a registered nurse.


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An ultrasound / SONOGRAPHY is a procedure that uses high-frequency sound waves to scan a the internal organs of the body woman’s abdomen and pelvic cavity, the reproductive system and the fetus of a pregnant woman creating a picture (sonogram) of the baby and placenta. Although the terms ultrasound and sonogram are technically different, they are used interchangeably and reference the same exam. They can show the structure and movement of the body's internal organs, including the abdomen, the fetus of pregnant women as well as blood flowing through blood vessels.

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A biophysical profile (BPP) test measures the health of your baby (fetus) during pregnancy. A BPP test may include a non stress test with electronic fetal heart monitoring and a fetal ultrasound. The BPP measures your baby's heart rate, muscle tone, movement, breathing, and the amount of amniotic fluid around your baby. A BPP is commonly done in the last trimester of pregnancy. If there is a chance that your baby may have problems during your pregnancy (high-risk pregnancy), a BPP may be done by 32 to 34 weeks or earlier. Some women with high-risk pregnancies may have a BPP test every week or twice a week in the third trimester. It is usually done to keep track of your baby’s health. 

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A breast ultrasound uses sound waves to make a picture of the tissues inside the breast. A breast ultrasound can show all areas of the breast, including the area closest to the chest wall, which is hard to study with a mammogram. Breast ultrasound does not use X-rays or other potentially harmful types of radiation. A breast ultrasound is used to see whether a breast lump is filled with fluid (a cyst) or if it is a solid lump. An ultrasound does not replace the need for a mammogram, but it is often used to check abnormal results from a mammogram


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Ultrasound imaging of the breast uses sound waves to produce pictures of the internal structures of the breast. It’s primarily used to help diagnose breast lumps or other abnormalities your doctor may have found during a physical exam, mammogram or breast MRI. Ultrasound is safe, noninvasive and does not use ionizing radiation.This procedure requires little to no special preparation. Leave jewelry at home and wear loose, comfortable clothing. You will be asked to undress from the waist up and to wear a gown during the procedure.

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 Ultrasound imaging of the head uses sound waves to produce pictures of the brain and cerebrospinal fluid. It is most commonly performed on infants, whose skulls have not completely formed. A transcranial Doppler ultrasound evaluates blood flow in the brain’s major arteries. Ultrasound is safe, noninvasive, and does not use ionizing radiation.This procedure requires little to no special preparation. Your doctor will instruct you on how to prepare, including whether adults undergoing the exam should refrain from using nicotine-based products that may cause blood vessels to constrict. Leave jewelry at home and wear loose, comfortable clothing. You may be asked to wear a gown.

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 B-scan ultrasonography is an important adjuvant for the clinical assessment of various ocular and orbital diseases. With understanding of the indications for ultrasonography and proper examination technique, one can gather a vast amount of information not possible with clinical examination alone. This article is designed to describe the principles, techniques, and indications for echographic examination, as well as to provide a general understanding of echographic characteristics of various ocular pathologies. 

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USG scan for Follicular Monitoring is done to study ovarian follicles that are used to identify ovulation of egg. For couples planning for pregnancy, ovulation period is the important period to try on, for conception to happen. Out of many ways available, the most reliable way to understand the ovulation is Follicular monitoring. It’s an endovaginal scan carried to study the ovaries, uterus and uterus lining. Looking at ovaries, the growth of follicles inside ovaries can be assessed giving a chance to predict the ovulation and also look if the womb is getting ready for pregnancy.

With follicular monitoring, you will get to know the growth of follicles, the approximate rupture period of follicles and hence can predict the ovulation period thereby have an intercourse happen at the right time for conception to take place. The womb if not yet ready for pregnancy can be treated by some supplements prescribed by the doctors.

This scan is carried out in a slightly dark examination room. You will have to undress down from your waist while you get covered by a sheet. Now you will be asked to position yourself lying down on your back on a special bed with your knees bent. Once you position yourself comfortably; the transducer, a sterile lubricated covered electronic device, is gently inserted into your vagina to look at the uterus and ovaries. Depending on how relaxed the patient is, the test takes up to 15 minutes.


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 X-ray beams are passed through the abdomen, producing images of the kidneys, ureters, and bladder on a special type of film. KUB radiography is often used as a first step in diagnosing problems of the urinary system, and is usually done in conjunction with intravenous pyelography.

 

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An ultrasound / SONOGRAPHY is a procedure that uses high-frequency sound waves to scan a the internal organs of the body woman’s abdomen and pelvic cavity, the reproductive system and the fetus of a pregnant woman creating a picture (sonogram) of the baby and placenta. Although the terms ultrasound and sonogram are technically different, they are used interchangeably and reference the same exam. They can show the structure and movement of the body's internal organs, including the abdomen, the fetus of pregnant women as well as blood flowing through blood vessels.

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Eyestrain is a common condition that occurs when your eyes get tired from intense use, such as while driving long distances or staring at computer screens and other digital devices.

Eyestrain can be annoying. But it usually isn't serious and goes away once you rest your eyes or take other steps to reduce your eye discomfort. In some cases, signs and symptoms of eyestrain can indicate an underlying eye condition that needs treatment.


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Thyroid ultrasound uses sound waves to produce pictures of the thyroid gland within the neck. It does not use ionizing radiation and is commonly used to evaluate lumps or nodules found during a routine physical or other imaging exam.This procedure requires little to no special preparation. Leave jewelry at home and wear loose, comfortable clothing. You may be asked to wear a gown.

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Ultrasound  is safe and paUltrasoundinless, and produces pictures of the inside of the body using sound waves. Ultrasound imaging, also called ultrasound scanning or sonography, involves the use of a small transducer (probe) and ultrasound gel placed directly on the skin. High-frequency sound waves are transmitted from the probe through the gel into the body. The transducer collects the sounds that bounce back and a computer then uses those sound waves to create an image. Ultrasound examinations do not use ionizing radiation (as used in x-rays), thus there is no radiation exposure to the patient. Because ultrasound images are captured in real-time, they can show the structure and movement of the body's internal organs, as well as blood flowing through blood vessels.


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Ultrasound is a high-frequency sound that you cannot hear but it travels through fluid and soft tissues. However, it bounces back, or echoes, when it hits a more solid, dense surface such as a valve or bile in the gallbladder etc. So, when ultrasound 'hits' structures of different densities in our bodies, it echoes differently with each hit. 


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Ultrasound imaging of the scrotum uses sound waves to produce pictures of a man’s testicles and surrounding tissues. It is the primary method used to help evaluate disorders of the testicles, epididymis (a tube immediately next to a testicle that collects sperm) and scrotum. Ultrasound is safe, noninvasive, and does not use ionizing radiation.

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An ultrasound / SONOGRAPHY is a procedure that uses high-frequency sound waves to scan a the internal organs of the body woman’s abdomen and pelvic cavity, the reproductive system and the fetus of a pregnant woman creating a picture (sonogram) of the baby and placenta. Although the terms ultrasound and sonogram are technically different, they are used interchangeably and reference the same exam. They can show the structure and movement of the body's internal organs, including the abdomen, the fetus of pregnant women as well as blood flowing through blood vessels





 

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Thyroid ultrasound uses sound waves to produce pictures of the thyroid gland within the neck. It does not use ionizing radiation and is commonly used to evaluate lumps or nodules found during a routine physical or other imaging exam.This procedure requires little to no special preparation. Leave jewelry at home and wear loose, comfortable clothing. You may be asked to wear a gown.

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A transrectal ultrasound (TRUS) may also be called prostate sonogram or endorectal ultrasound. It is used to look at the prostate and tissues around it. An ultrasound transducer (also called a probe) sends sound waves through the wall of the rectum and into the prostate and surrounding tissue. A computer analyzes the wave patterns (called echoes) as they bounce off the organs and converts them into an image that doctors view on a video screen.

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An ultrasound test uses high-frequency sound waves to create images of your internal organs. Imaging tests can identify abnormalities and help doctors diagnose conditions. A transvaginal ultrasound, also called an endovaginal ultrasound, is a type of pelvic ultrasound used by doctors to examine female reproductive organs. This includes the uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries, cervix, and vagina.

“Transvaginal” means “through the vagina.” This is an internal examination. Unlike a regular abdominal or pelvic ultrasound, where the ultrasound wand, or transducer, rests on the outside of the pelvis, this procedure involves your doctor or a technician inserting an ultrasound probe about two or three inches into your vaginal canal.


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An ultrasound / SONOGRAPHY is a procedure that uses high-frequency sound waves to scan a the internal organs of the body woman’s abdomen and pelvic cavity, the reproductive system and the fetus of a pregnant woman creating a picture (sonogram) of the baby and placenta. Although the terms ultrasound and sonogram are technically different, they are used interchangeably and reference the same exam. They can show the structure and movement of the body's internal organs, including the abdomen, the fetus of pregnant women as well as blood flowing through blood vessels.


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A sty is a red, painful lump near the edge of your eyelid that may look like a boil or a pimple. Sties are often filled with pus. A sty usually forms on the outside of your eyelid. But sometimes it can form on the inner part of your eyelid.

In most cases, a sty will begin to disappear on its own in a couple days. In the meantime, you may be able to relieve the pain or discomfort of a sty by applying a warm washcloth to your eyelid.

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Ultrasound imaging also called as sonography uses a transducer or a probe to generate sound waves and produce pictures of the body's internal structures. It is often used to help diagnose unexplained pain, swelling or infection. It is also used to see internal body structures such as tendons, muscles, joints, vessels and internal organs. Ultrasound abdomen is primarily used for evaluating the kidneys, liver, pancreas, gall bladder etc.It may also be used to provide imaging guidance to needle biopsies or to see and evaluate conditions related to blood flow. It does not use ionizing radiation, has no known harmful effects, and provides a clear picture of soft tissues that don't show up well on x-ray images. It is a painless, safe and non invasive procedure.
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As an ancillary test for congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), particularly in situations in which a diagnosis of 21-hydroxylase and 11-hydroxylase deficiency have been ruled out


Confirming a diagnosis of 3-beta-hydroxy dehydrogenase (3-beta-HSD) deficiency


Analysis for 17-hydroxypregnenolone is also useful as part of a battery of tests to evaluate females with hirsutism or infertility; both can result from adult-onset CAH

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17-ketosteroids are substances that form when the body breaks down male steroid sex hormones called androgens and other hormones released by the adrenal glands in males and females, and by the testes in males.

A 24-hour urine sample is needed. You will need to collect your urine over 24 hours. Your health care provider will tell you how to do this. Follow instructions exactly to ensure accurate results.

Your provider will ask you to temporarily stop any medicines that may affect the test results. Be sure to tell your provider about all the medicines you take. These include:

1.Antibiotics

2.Aspirin (if you are on long-term aspirin)

3.Birth control pills

4.Diuretics (water pills)

5.Estrogen..


Increased levels of 17-ketosteroids may be due to:

1.Adrenal gland problems such as tumor, Cushing syndrome

2.Imbalance of sex hormones in females (polycystic ovary syndrome)

3.Ovarian cancer

4.Testicular cancer


Decreased levels of 17-ketosteroids may be due to:

1.Adrenal glands not making enough of their hormones (Addison disease)

2.Kidney damage

3.Pituitary gland not making enough of its hormones (hypopituitarism)

4.Removal of the testicles (castration)

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The hormone 17-hydroxyprogesterone is a building block for producing the hormone cortisol. Cortisol is produced mainly by the adrenal cortex (the outer part of the two adrenal glands, located above the kidneys). Cortisol is called the "stress hormone" because it's secreted in larger amounts as part of the body's response to physical or emotional stress.


Cortisol levels normally vary throughout the day. They're highest in the morning, just before waking up, and lowest at night.


Some people, however, can't make enough cortisol because they lack an enzyme in the adrenal glands that's needed to make it. They'll have a buildup of 17-hydroxyprogesterone in the blood because it's not being converted to cortisol.


In kids, the most common cause of cortisol deficiency, and consequently high levels of 17-hydroxyprogesterone, is one of the forms of the genetic disorder congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH).


CAH can affect both boys and girls. It causes the adrenal glands to make excess androgens (male steroid hormones) and, in some cases, not enough of the hormones that regulate the body's salt balance.


Though treatable, undetected CAH can sometimes lead to more serious symptoms such as dehydration and shock in infants.

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Primary aldosteronism should be suspected whenever a patient has the triad of hypertension, hypokalemia, and inappropriate renal potassium wasting. The biggest challenge is the differential diagnosis between the more common adrenal adenoma and bilateral hyperplasia. Because adrenal adenomas increase the circulating levels of 18-hydroxycorticosterone (18-OH B), serum levels of 18-OH B may be useful to differentiate them from bilateral adrenal hyperplasia. The cutoff point appears to be about 50 ng/dL of serum. Most values are around 100 ng/dL. The higher the level of this precursor, the greater the possibility that an adrenal adenoma is present. J Clin Endocrinol Metab.

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There are different types of cortisol tests that may be performed, including blood, saliva, and urine tests. The urine test is done over a period of 24 hours.

The cortisol urine test tends to be more comprehensive than the other types of cortisol tests. It measures the total amount of cortisol excreted into the urine over a 24-hour period. Blood tests or saliva tests, however, only measure cortisol levels at a particular time of day. Some people also find blood tests to be stressful, and since the body releases more cortisol during times of stress, the results may not be as precise. In some cases, your doctor may order both a cortisol urine test and another type of cortisol test to obtain more accurate results.


Cushing’s syndrome is a collection of symptoms associated with high cortisol levels. The most common symptoms include:


1.Increased urination

2.Increased thirst

3.Fatty tissue deposits, especially in the midsection and upper back

4.Pink or purple stretch marks on the skin

5.Weight gain

6.Fatigue

7.Muscle weakness

8.Thinning skin that bruises easily

9.Women may have irregular periods and excess facial and chest hair. Children may show delayed physical or cognitive development.


The symptoms of low cortisol levels often emerge slowly. At first, they may only appear during times of extreme stress, but they’ll gradually increase in intensity over several months. Potential symptoms include:


1.Weight loss

2.Fatigue

3.Dizziness

4.Fainting

5.Muscle weakness

6.Abdominal pain

7.Diarrhea

8.Constipation


When cortisol levels abruptly drop to life-threatening levels, an acute adrenal crisis may occur. The symptoms of an acute adrenal crisis include:


1.Darkening of the skin

2.Extreme weakness

3.Vomiting

4.Diarrhea

5.Fainting

6.Chills

7.Loss of appetite

8.Sudden onset of severe pain in the lower back, abdomen, or legs.


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Albumin commonly exists in the blood and is filtered by the kidneys. The presence or absence of albumin determines the functionality of the kidneys. It is said that small quantities of albumin leak into the urine when the kidneys do not function properly. This condition is known as microalbuminuria. A microalbumin test diagnosis urine for the presence of albumin.

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Testosterone plays a central role in male development and health. Likewise, androgen deficiency, or hypogonadism, is associated with a variety of symptoms including decreased energy, diminished libido and erectile dysfunction, among others. Male androgen levels steadily decline with age, and, in a subset of symptomatic older men, can result in late-onset hypogonadism (LOH). Over the last decade, increased awareness of hypogonadism among patients and providers has led to a significant rise in the use of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) for hypogonadism, and especially in LOH. Accompanying the rise in TRT are concerns of potential adverse effects, including cardiovascular risks and the promotion of prostate cancer. The ‘androgen hypothesis’ asserts that prostate cancer development and progression is driven by androgens, and thus TRT has the theoretical potential to drive prostate cancer development and progression. In this review, we examine existing data surrounding testosterone and prostate cancer. There is significant evidence that androgens promote prostate cancer in experimental systems. However, there is no clear evidence that elevations in endogenous testosterone levels promote the development of prostate cancer in humans. As a result of experimental and historical data on the progression of prostate cancer following TRT, there has been widespread belief that TRT will promote disease progression in prostate cancer patients. Despite these fears, there are a growing number of studies demonstrating no increase in prostate cancer incidence among men on TRT. Furthermore, in studies involving a small number of patients, there has been no discernable increase in disease progression in prostate cancer patients on TRT. While data from large, prospective, randomized, controlled trials are absent, TRT in select prostate cancer patients is likely safe. In the end, the use of TRT in prostate cancer patients is still considered experimental and should only be offered after well-informed shared decision making and with close monitoring.

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This test finds out how much 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) is in your urine.


Your liver breaks down the hormone serotonin into 5-HIAA. This waste product is normally sent from your body in your urine. Tumors called functioning carcinoids secrete serotonin. Carcinoid tumors are found in the intestinal tract, lungs, appendix, and other body tissues. Because serotonin in the blood is broken down very quickly, the amount of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid collected in the urine over a full day more accurately reflects the rate at which serotonin is being made than the blood level at one particular time. 

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Acid- Fast Bacilli (AFB) smear and culture are two separate tests always performed together at the MSPHL, Tuberculosis (TB) Unit. AFB smear refers to the microscopic examination of a fluorochrome stain of a clinical specimen. The AFB culture is the inoculation of a clinical specimen onto culture media Becton-Dickinson Mycobacteria Growth Indicator Tube (B-D MGIT broth) and Lowenstein-Jensen (L-J) media slant, incubation at 37°C for up to six (6) weeks and detection of growth or no growth during this incubation period. Tuberculosis usually attacks the lungs but can also affect other parts of the body. It is spread through the air when people who have the disease cough, sneeze, or spit. The other widely used tests used in the diagnosis & screening of Tuberculosis infection are:AFB, smear examinationCulture, Mycobacterium TuberculosisMantoux test (Tuberculin skin test)Mycobacterium antibody panel (TB-IgG, IgM, IgA)Mycobacterium Tuberculosis by RT-PCRQuantiferon TB Gold.

The Acid Fast Bacilli - Sputum is done for routine health screenings, to identify the acid-fast bacilli in sputum, fluid or tissue specimen and to manage the medication of mycobacterial infections such as tuberculosis. It may also be used when an atypical mycobacterial infection is suspected.

The Acid Fast Bacilli is generally ordered on suspicion of tuberculosis. The most common symptom of tuberculosis is a chronic cough that produces mucus and sometimes contains blood streaks. Other symptoms of tuberculosis include chest pain, weakness, chills, fever and unexplained weight loss.


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ENT physicians must complete about 15 years of education and training, including a 4-year undergraduate program, 4-year medical program, at least 5 years of specialty training and a 1- to 2-year residency program (e.g., General Surgery). Then, physicians must undergo peer evaluations and pass oral and written examinations administered by the American Board of Otolaryngology.

After attaining board certification, otolaryngologists may pursue a one- or two- year fellowship for extensive training and examinations in a subspecialty area. Otolaryngology subspecialties include:

Allergy
Facial Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
Head and Neck Surgery
Laryngology
Otology/Audiology
Pediatric Otolaryngology
Rhinology
Neurotology
Sleep Medicine
Board certification is valid for 10 years. To revalidate their certification, ENTs must meet guidelines established by the American Board of Medical Specialties and complete a Maintenance of Certification Program. This process emphasizes professional standing, lifelong learning and self-assessment, cognitive expertise and evaluation of performance in practice.

Valid certificate issued by the American Board of Otolaryngology
Valid, unrestricted medical license
Privileges to practice otolaryngology-head and neck surgery in accredited hospital or surgical center
Completion of required CME credits
Successful completion of the American Board of Otolaryngology self-assessment module
Maintenance of Certification Examination

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White blood cells are an important part of your body’s immune system. They’re vital to protecting you from invading bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Your bone marrow produces all five of the different kinds of white blood cells in the body.


Each white blood cell lives anywhere from several hours to several days in the blood stream. An eosinophil is a type of white blood cell. Eosinophils are stored in tissues throughout the body, surviving for up to several weeks. The bone marrow continually replenishes the body’s white blood cell supply.


The number and type of each white blood cell in your body can give doctors a better understanding of your health. Elevated levels of white blood cells in your blood can be an indicator that you have an illness or infection. Elevated levels often mean your body is sending more and more white blood cells to fight off infections.


An eosinophil count is a blood test that measures the quantity of eosinophils in your body. Abnormal eosinophil levels are often discovered as part of a routine complete blood count (CBC) test.


Ongoing research continues to uncover an expanding list of roles performed by eosinophils. It appears now that nearly every system of the body relies on eosinophils in some way. Two important functions are within your immune system. Eosinophils destroy invading germs like viruses, bacteria, or parasites such as hookworms. They also have a role in the inflammatory response, especially if an allergy is involved.


Inflammation is neither good nor bad. It helps isolate and control the immune response at the site of an infection, but a side effect is tissue damage around it. Allergies are immune responses that often involve chronic inflammation. Eosinophils play a significant role in the inflammation related to allergies, eczema, and asthma.

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The number of neutrophils in the blood is expressed as absolute neutrophil count (ANC) and it measures the percentage of neutrophils in the differential WBC count. The ANC of a healthy individual falls in the range of 2,500 to 6,000 per microliter.

A total blood count gives the levels of the three types of blood cells - white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets. Neutrophils are present in two forms – polys and bands. Polys are also known as segmented neutrophils and are the most abundant of the WBCs. Bands are also called stabs and are immature polys. Both polys and bands destroy invaders (i.e. microbes) in the body.

The ANC is calculated by multiplying the number of WBCs in blood by the percentage of total neutrophils.  For example, for a WBC count of 7000 per microliter, if neutrophils constitute 40% of the WBCs, the ANC in this case will be 7000 × 0.40 = 2800 per microliter.

An ANC below 1,000 per microliter is called neutropenia. ANCs less than 500 per microliter significantly increase the risk of infection. In cancer patients, frequent blood tests are performed to assess WBC count and ANC to monitor the body’s response to cancer treatment.

Neutrophils constitute nearly 55 to 70% of the total WBC count. Acute infections or trauma are the main triggers for production of neutrophils leading to elevated WBC count also known as neutrophilia or neutrophil leukocytosis.

In cancer patients, ANC is a reflection of the immunologic status of the patient in response to chemotherapy. This therapy suppresses production of WBC and hence neutrophils, thus increasing infection risks. Hence, a low ANC or neutropenia can be an indication of the need for reducing chemotherapy dosage or delaying the next sessions of chemotherapy. ANC also allows prediction of neutropenia-related events including fever after chemo­therapy sessions. It thus offers a clear picture of the patient’s immunologic status.

ANC helps determine the need for antibiotics or other measures along with therapy to decrease complications related to neutro­penia. While for an in-patient, a low ANC may be an indicator of the need to isolate the patient so as to protect him or her from exposure to infectious agents, in case of an out-patient, it can highlight the need to keep away from crowds or people having flu or colds. ANC is thus a powerful monitoring tool in cancer patients who are prone to bone marrow suppression due to radiation, chemotherapy, or bone marrow transplant.



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Most of the time blood is drawn from a vein on the inside of the elbow or the back of the hand. The site is cleaned with an antiseptic. The health care provider wraps an elastic band around your upper arm to make the vein swell with blood.


Next, the provider gently inserts a needle into the vein. The blood collects into an airtight tube attached to the needle. The elastic band is removed from your arm. The needle is then removed and the site is covered to stop bleeding.


In infants or young children, a sharp tool called a lancet may be used to prick the skin. The blood collects in a small glass tube, or onto a slide or test strip. A bandage is put on the spot to stop bleeding.


In the lab, the blood is placed on a microscope slide. A stain is added to the sample. This causes eosinophils to show up as orange-red granules. The technician then counts how many eosinophils are present per 100 cells. The percentage of eosinophils is multiplied by the white blood cell count to give the absolute eosinophil count.

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When ketones accumulate in the blood, the body enters ketosis. For some people, ketosis is normal. Low-carbohydrate diets can induce this state. This is sometimes called nutritional ketosis.


If you have type 1 diabetes, you may be at risk for diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), which is a life-threatening complication in which your blood becomes too acidic. It can lead to a diabetic coma or death.


Contact your doctor immediately if you have diabetes and have a moderate or high reading for ketones. Some newer blood glucose meters will test blood ketone levels. Otherwise, you can use urine ketone strips to measure your urine ketone level. DKA can develop within 24 hours and can lead to life-threatening conditions if left untreated.

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Acetylcholine receptor (AChR) antibodies are autoantibodies produced by the immune system that mistakenly target proteins called acetylcholine receptors that are located on skeletal muscle fibers. This test detects and measures AChR antibodies in the blood.

Acetylcholine receptors function as "docking stations" for acetylcholine, a chemical substance (neurotransmitter) that transmits messages between nerve cells. Muscle movement starts when an impulse is sent down a nerve to the nerve ending, where it stimulates the release of acetylcholine. Acetylcholine travels across a microscopic gap between the nerve ending and a muscle fiber at the "neuromuscular junction." When it reaches the muscle fiber, it binds to one of many acetylcholine receptors and activates it, initiating muscle contraction.

AChR antibodies impede communication between nerves and skeletal muscles, inhibit muscle contraction, and cause rapid muscle fatigue by preventing activation of the acetylcholine receptors. They do this in three major ways:


1.Binding antibodies attach to the receptors on nerve cells and may initiate an inflammatory reaction that destroys the receptors.

2.Blocking antibodies may sit on the receptors, preventing acetylcholine from binding.

3.Modulating antibodies may cross-link the receptors, causing them to be taken up into the muscle cell and removed from the neuromuscular junction.


The end result of this interference is the development of myasthenia gravis (MG), a chronic autoimmune disorder associated with the presence of these antibodies and with their effects on muscle control.

AChR antibodies may be detected in different ways to determine which mechanism may be the problem in a particular individual, and the antibodies may be referred to as "binding," "blocking," or "modulating." However, the technique that measures "binding" is the most commonly performed and, generally speaking, it is rare for the other two tests to be positive without the "binding" test being positive as well. These other approaches may be useful when a healthcare practitioner strongly suspects myasthenia gravis and the "binding" test is negative.

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Approximately 90% of patients with myasthenia gravis MG) express antibodies to the acetylcholine receptor (aChR), which can be divided into binding, blocking, and modulating antibody. Binding antibody can activate complement and lead to loss of aChR. Blocking antibody may impair aChR binding to the receptor, leading to poor muscle contraction. Modulating antibody causes receptor endocytosis resulting in loss of aChR expression, which correlates most closely with clinical severity of disease. Approximately 10% of individuals with confirmed myasthenia gravis have no measurable binding, blocking, or modulating antibody. Myasthenia gravis (MG) is an autoimmune disease in which an acetylcholine receptor (AChR) is the antibody target. The AChR in the motor end-plate of skeletal muscle is an integral membrane protein consisting of five subunits (a pentamer). The alpha chain carries both the binding site for cholinergic ligands (binding site for acetylcholine and bungarotoxin) and the main immunogenic region, a region against which a majority of the antibodies of MG patients are directed. In MG, acetylcholine-dependent neuromuscular transmission is impaired by a loss of signal transduction. The final result is that threshold potential in the cell is never reached and the muscle cannot contract. The patient experiences voluntary muscle weakness and fatigue characteristic of the disease, as well as difficulty in swallowing, diplopia, ptosis (in ocular MG), and, in severe cases, death. Individuals who manifest AChR antibodies generally do not express a single, monoclonal antibody population. The antibody population is divided into three classes: • Binding • Blocking • Modulating Binding antibodies are those that are epitopically directed toward the large hydrophilic domain of the receptor. This class of antibodies can activate the complement cascade, resulting in tissue damage and receptor loss. The AChR binding antibody radioimmunoassay detects a wide population of autoantibodies. The use of soluble receptor measures not only antibody directed against the extracellular region of the receptor, presumably the portion involved in the pathophysiology of the disease, but intracellular determinants of the receptor not normally exposed to immunoglobulins. The assay is incapable of differentiating general binding antibodies from the more specific modulating population. Moreover, the binding assay does not easily measure a blocking population. Blocking autoantibodies prevent the binding of acetylcholine to the receptor. They may act by direct steric interference or by an allosteric mechanism. The pathology associated with this type of antibody will result in the most rapid loss of receptor function. Modulating antibodies as a class accelerate endocytosis, resulting in loss of receptors. It is largely this class of antibodies to which clinical severity has been most closely associated. In fifty-three percent of samples with any measurable autoantibody, all three antibody populations were present. Addition of blocking and modulating antibody assays to the binding assay increased the number of samples that tested positive by approximately 10 percent. Studies show that the presence of modulating antibody generally compares more closely to disease severity than either binding or blocking classes. Drachman et al showed that the blocking population has a disease severity correlation nearly as high as that of modulating antibodies (88% vs. 91%). Approximately 90 percent of patients with myasthenia gravis (MG) express antibodies to the acetylcholine receptor (AChR), which can be divided into binding, blocking, and modulating antibody. Binding antibody can activate complement and lead to loss of AChR. Blocking antibody may impair AChR binding to the receptor, leading to poor muscle contraction. Modulating antibody causes receptor endocytosis resulting in loss of AChR expression, which correlates most closely with clinical severity of disease. Approximately 10 percent of individuals with confirmed myasthenia gravis have no measurable binding, blocking, or modulating antibody.


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Approximately 85-90% of patients with myasthenia gravis (MG) express antibodies to the acetylcholine receptor (AChR), which can be divided into binding, blocking, and modulating antibodies. Binding antibody can activate complement and lead to loss of AChR. Blocking antibody may impair AChR binding to the receptor, leading to poor muscle contraction. Modulating antibody causes receptor endocytosis resulting in loss of AChR expression, which correlates most closely with clinical severity of disease. Approximately 10-15% of individuals with confirmed myasthenia gravis have no measurable binding, blocking, or modulating antibodies. This test was developed and its performance characteristics determined by ARUP Laboratories. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved or cleared this test; however, FDA clearance or approval is not currently required for clinical use. The results are not intended to be used as the sole means for clinical diagnosis or patient management decisions.


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Prostatic acid phosphatase (PAP) is an enzyme that is found in the prostate gland and semen of men. If the prostate isn’t working properly, then PAP is released into the blood. PAP determination in conjunction with PSA measurements is useful in assessing the prognosis of prostate cancer.1,2 Measurement of two markers allows identification of prostate cancer patients who have an elevation of PAP but not of PSA, and thus help monitoring the course of disease and response to treatment.

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Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is a hormone produced in the anterior, or front, pituitary gland in the brain. The function of ACTH is to regulate levels of the steroid hormone cortisol, which released from the adrenal gland.


ACTH is also known as:

adrenocorticotropic hormone

serum adrenocorticotropic hormone

highly-sensitive ACTH

corticotropin

cosyntropin, which is a drug form of ACTH

An ACTH test measures the levels of both ACTH and cortisol in the blood and helps your doctor detect diseases that are associated with too much or too little cortisol in the body. Possible causes of these diseases include:

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Your pituitary gland is a pea-sized gland located at the base of your brain. It produces many types of hormones, including the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).


ACTH stimulates the adrenal glands, which sit atop the kidneys, to release two hormones: cortisol and adrenaline (also known as epinephrine). These hormones help you respond to stress in a healthy way and support your immune system. Cortisol is a steroid hormone that affects many different systems in the body, including your:


circulatory system

immune system

nervous system

bone metabolism

metabolism of nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats, and protein

Adrenaline, or epinephrine, is a hormone responsible for maintaining normal nervous system and circulatory function. This hormone, along with another hormone called norepinephrine, are responsible for your protective fight-or-flight response when you face a stressful situation.


Your healthcare provider might have you take an ACTH (cosyntropin) test if they suspect your adrenal glands aren’t functioning properly. This test requires you to receive an injection of cosyntropin, a synthetic portion of ACTH. You will also have two blood samples drawn — one before the injection and one after the injection. These samples measure the level of cortisol in your blood.


This ACTH stimulation test measures how your adrenal glands react to the ACTH in your blood. It does this by measuring your body’s cortisol levels. It’s important not to confuse this test with an ACTH test, which simply measures the ACTH levels in your blood.

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Are you in search of how to make your eyelashes grow?  Like the hair on your scalp. eyelashes naturally grow in cycles and have a genetically determined growth phase which determines the full potential your lashes can reach.  However, only about 24% of your eyelashes ever reach full length? That’s because your lashes will sustain damage from curling, cleansing, wearing makeup and encountering environmental elements over time. So, while you may not be able to reverse damage to your eyelashes. You can learn how to protect and condition them so they can reach their full fluttery potential.

Infinite Lash has a revolutionary formula infused with a blend of vitamins, minerals, polypeptides, and botanicals that nourish and rejuvenate your natural lashes. It also contains natural antioxidants that protect against dryness and damage.

Not all of us are blessed with long, thick, luscious lashes but here are some essential tips you could try – if you ever wanted to know how to make your eyelashes grow.


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Protein C, a part of the natural anticoagulant system, is a vitamin K-dependent protein zymogen (molecular weight=62,000 da) that is synthesized in the liver and circulates at a plasma concentration of approximately 5 mcg/mL. Protein C is activated to activated protein C (APC) via proteolytic cleavage by thrombin bound to thrombomodulin, an endothelial cell surface membrane protein. APC downregulates the procoagulant system by proteolytically inactivating procoagulant factors Va and VIIIa. Protein S, another vitamin K-dependent coagulation protein, catalyzes APC inactivation of factors Va and VIIIa. APC interacts with and proteolyses factors V/Va and VIII/VIIIa at specific APC binding and cleavage sites, respectively. Resistance to activated protein C (APC resistance) is a term used to describe abnormal resistance of human plasma to the anticoagulant effects of human APC. APC resistance is characterized by a reduced anticoagulant response of patient plasma after adding a standard amount of APC. For this assay, the activated partial thromboplastin time clotting test fails to prolong significantly after the addition of APC.

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Adenosine deaminase (ADA) is a protein that is produced by cells throughout the body and is associated with the activation of lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell that plays a role in the immune response to infections. Conditions that trigger the immune system, such as an infection by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the bacteria that causes tuberculosis (TB), may cause increased amounts of ADA to be produced in the areas where the bacteria are present. This test measures the amount of adenosine deaminase present in pleural fluid in order to help diagnose a tuberculosis infection of the pleurae.


Pleurae are membranes that cover the chest cavity and the outside of each lung. Small amounts of pleural fluid are continuously produced to lubricate the movement of the lungs against these membranes and the membranes against each other during inhalation and exhalation. A variety of conditions and diseases, including infection, can cause inflammation of the pleurae (pleurisy or pleuritis) and can lead to excessive pleural fluid accumulation (pleural effusion).


Tuberculosis can spread into the lungs and pleurae, causing symptoms such as chest pain, chronic cough, and shortness of breath. Since these symptoms may also be seen with a variety of other conditions, it is important to determine the cause as rapidly as possible in order to properly treat the affected person. Detecting mycobacteria in pleural fluid can be difficult because there may be a large volume of fluid and very low numbers of bacteria present. Though the ADA test is not specific and does not replace the culture for diagnosing TB, it may be positive even when numbers of bacteria are very low and can be used as an adjunct test to help determine whether tuberculosis is the likely source of a person's symptoms.



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Investing laboratories and new rapid tools to diagnose tuberculosis20140521_105740 Suzanne Zambia


To be able to halt the tuberculosis (TB) epidemic, one of the first and most essential breakthroughs we need to realize is universal access to laboratories that provide quality-assured diagnostic tests for TB. Each year an estimated 3 million people are either not diagnosed or not treated for TB. To be able to identify all persons with TB disease in need of treatment, laboratory facilities and laboratory networks urgently need to be upgraded and expanded in many countries. Laboratory work is also becoming progressively complex, following the increased use of quality-assured diagnostics and the introduction of new laboratory tools.


Countries often lack appropriately qualified technicians and well-trained managers, and laboratory services are facing challenges ranging from poor infrastructure, unreliable basic utilities (water, electricity), to interruptions of essential supplies.

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Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) is a single polypeptide chain glycoprotein with a molecular weight of approximately 70,000 daltons. Synthesis of AFP occurs primarily in the liver and yolk sac of the fetus. It is secreted in fetal serum, reaching a peak at approximately 13 weeks gestation, after which it rapidly declines until about 22 weeks gestation and then gradually declines until term. Transfer of AFP into maternal circulation is accomplished primarily through diffusion across the placenta. Maternal serum AFP levels rise from the normal nonpregnancy level of 0.20 ng/mL to about 250 ng/mL at 32 weeks gestation.


If the fetus has an open neural tube defect, AFP is thought to leak directly into the amniotic fluid causing unexpectedly high concentrations of AFP. Other fetal abnormalities such as omphalocele, gastroschisis, congenital renal disease, and esophageal atresia; and other fetal distress situations such as threatened abortion, prematurity, and fetal demise, may also show AFP elevations. Decreased amniotic fluid AFP values may be seen when gestational age has been overestimated.

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Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) is a protein produced in the liver of a developing fetus. During a baby's development, some AFP passes through the placenta and into the mother's blood. An AFP test measures the level of AFP in pregnant women during the second trimester of pregnancy. Too much or too little AFP in a mother's blood may be sign of a birth defect or other condition. These include:


A neural tube defect, a serious condition that causes abnormal development of a developing baby's brain and/or spine

Down syndrome, a genetic disorder that causes intellectual disabilities and developmental delays

Twins or multiple births, because more than one baby is producing AFP

Miscalculation of due date, because AFP levels change during pregnancy

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Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) is a glycoprotein that is produced in early fetal life by the liver and by a variety of tumors including hepatocellular carcinoma, hepatoblastoma, and nonseminomatous germ cell tumors of the ovary and testis (eg, yolk sac and embryonal carcinoma). Most studies report elevated AFP concentrations in approximately 70% of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Elevated AFP concentrations are found in 50% to 70% of patients with nonseminomatous testicular tumors.(1)


AFP is elevated during pregnancy. Persistence of AFP in the mother following birth is a rare hereditary condition.(2) Neonates have markedly elevated AFP levels (>100,000 ng/mL) that rapidly fall to below 100 ng/mL by 150 days and gradually return to normal over their first year.(2)


Concentrations of AFP above the reference range also have been found in serum of patients with benign liver disease (eg, viral hepatitis, cirrhosis), gastrointestinal tract tumors and, along with carcinoembryonic antigen in ataxia telangiectasia.

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Your liver’s in charge of making most of the proteins that are in your blood. They are important for good health.


Two of the key ones are:

Albumin. This carries medicines and hormones throughout your body. It also helps with tissue growth and healing.

Globulin. This is a group of proteins. Some of them are made by your liver. Others are made by your immune system. They help fight infection and transport nutrients.


The total serum protein test measures all the proteins in your blood. It can also check the amount of albumin you have compared to globulin, or what’s called your “A/G ratio.”


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For several decades, nonspecific methods, which depend upon raised globulin levels, have been used in the diagnosis of VL. Some of the tests used for detecting these nonspecific immunoglobulins are Napier's formol gel or aldehyde test and the Chopra antimony test. Since these tests depend upon raised globulin levels, results can be positive in a host of conditions (13, 14). Lack of specificity, as well as varying sensitivities, renders them highly unreliable.


Several immunodiagnostic methods which are more sensitive and specific have been developed. They are useful in identifying specific cases and can be used for community surveillance. The human body makes an attempt to fight against VL by producing some of the highest levels of antibodies found in response to any disease, all to no avail. This is due to polyclonal activation of the B cells, resulting in marked elevation of levels (in serum) of immunoglobulin G (IgG) and IgM against various nonspecific proteins and haptens (23). The consistent presence of high levels of antibodies against parasite antigens can simplify diagnosis of VL. Several serological techniques are based on detection of these antibodies. The specificity of the antibody depends upon the antigen or epitope used in the test, as the parasite stimulates production of a wide array of antibodies, including group-, genus-, and species-specific antibodies. Therefore, the sensitivity may depend upon the test and its methodology, but the specificity will depend on the antigen rather than the serological procedure used. In most serological tests, the sensitivity and specificity data are compared against demonstration of parasites in various tissues.


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Your body converts a form of sugar called glucose into energy. This process requires a number of different steps. One important component in the process is an enzyme known as aldolase. Aldolase can be found throughout the body, but concentrations are highest in skeletal muscle and liver.


Although there’s not a direct correlation, high blood aldolase levels can occur if there is damage to your liver or muscles.

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An aldosterone (ALD) test measures the amount of ALD in your blood. It’s also called a serum aldosterone test. ALD is a hormone made by the adrenal glands. The adrenal glands are found on top of your kidneys and are responsible for producing several important hormones. ALD affects blood pressure and also regulates sodium (salt) and potassium in your blood, among other functions.


Too much ALD can contribute to high blood pressure and low potassium levels. It’s known as hyperaldosteronism when your body makes too much ALD. Primary hyperaldosteronism could be caused by an adrenal tumor (usually benign, or noncancerous). Meanwhile, secondary hyperaldosteronism could be caused by a variety of conditions. These include:


congestive heart failure

cirrhosis

some kidney diseases (e.g., nephrotic syndrome)

excess potassium

low sodium

toxemia from pregnancy


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Bone Specific Alkaline Phosphatase is one of the isoenzymes of Alkaline Phosphatase.

Bone Specific Alkaline Phosphataseit is associated with osteoblast cell function and thought to have a role in bone mineralization.

The measurement of Bone Specific Alkaline Phosphatase provides information useful in the evaluation and treatment of people with Paget’s disease, osteoporosis, and metastases to bone.

Bone alkaline phosphatase (BAP) is the bone-specific isoform of alkaline phosphatase. A glycoprotein that is found on the surface of osteoblasts, BAP reflects the biosynthetic activity of these bone-forming cells. BAP has been shown to be a sensitive and reliable indicator of bone metabolism.(1)

Normal bone is constantly undergoing remodeling in which bone degradation or resorption is balanced by bone formation. This process is necessary for maintaining bone health. If the process becomes uncoupled and the rate of resorption exceeds the rate of formation, the resulting bone loss can lead to osteoporosis and, consequently, a higher susceptibility to fractures.

Osteoporosis is a metabolic bone disease characterized by low bone mass and abnormal bone microarchitecture. It can result from a number of clinical conditions including states of high bone turnover, endocrine disorders (primary and secondary hyperparathyroidism and thyrotoxicosis), osteomalacia, renal failure, gastrointestinal diseases, long-term corticosteroid therapy, multiple myeloma, and cancer metastatic to the bones.

Paget disease is another common metabolic bone disease caused by excessive rates of bone remodeling resulting in local lesions of abnormal bone matrix. These lesions can result in fractures or neurological involvement. Antiresorptive therapies are used to restore the normal bone structure.



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The skin of the inner forearm is the usual test site for allergy testing using the Skin Prick Test method. One can also take a blood sample for allergy testing and measure Total Immunoglobulin E (IgE) which is the marker antibody for allergy sensitisation. Then there are the Phadiatop inhalant screen, Food Allergy screens and over 450 individual RAST or ImmunoCAP tests available.


We can quantify allergy severity with another cellular marker, this is the Eosinophil cell in the blood stream. Eosinophils are also found in the allergy sufferer’s phlegm, gullet secretions and nasal mucous. Lung function tests are important in asthma diagnosis, and tests include Peak Flow (PF), Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 second (FEV1) and Forced Vital Capacity (FVC). Measurement of Nitric Oxide (NO) in exhaled air is another measure of allergic inflammation and indicates poor control or ineffective treatment

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An alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) blood test checks the level of AFP in a pregnant woman's blood. AFP is a substance made in the liver of an unborn baby (fetus). The amount of AFP in the blood of a pregnant woman can help see whether the baby may have such problems as spina bifida and anencephaly. An AFP test can also be done as part of a screening test to find other chromosomal problems, such as Down syndrome (trisomy 21) or Edwards syndrome (trisomy 18). An AFP test can help find an omphalocele, a congenital problem in which some of the baby's intestines stick out through the belly wall.


Normally, low levels of AFP can be found in the blood of a pregnant woman. No AFP (or only a very low level) is generally found in the blood of healthy men or healthy, nonpregnant women.


The level of AFP in the blood is used in a maternal serum triple or quadruple screening test. Generally done between 15 and 20 weeks, these tests check the levels of three or four substances in a pregnant woman's blood. The triple screen checks alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), and a type of estrogen (unconjugated estriol, or uE3). The quad screen checks these substances and the level of the hormone inhibin A. The levels of these substances-along with a woman's age and other factors-help the doctor estimate the chance that the baby may have certain problems or birth defects.

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To determine whether the presence of circulating desialylated glycoproteins reflect the existence and/or the severity of liver disease, 73 patients were evaluated with liver biopsies, conventional liver function tests, and the measurement of the degree of desialylation of two glycoproteins alpha 1-acid glycoprotein (alpha 1-AGP) and alpha 1-antitrypsin (alpha 1-AT). A combination of two immunological methods, available as routine laboratory tests, was used for the determination of the desialylation of alpha 1-AGP and alpha 1-AT. The severity of liver disease was assessed by a clinical classification depending upon the presence or absence of four complications (jaundice, ascites, hepatic encephalopathy, and weight loss). The presence of serum desialylated alpha 1-AGP did not allow detection of mild liver disease, but asialo alpha 1-AGP (and to a lesser extent of asialo-alpha 1-(AT) correlated with the severity of liver disease. The sensitivity of desialylated alpha 1-AGP in detection of severe liver disease was 65%, and its specificity was 80%.

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Alpha-1-antitrypsin (A1A) is the most abundant serum protease inhibitor and inhibits trypsin and elastin, as well as several other proteases. The release of proteolytic enzymes from plasma onto organ surfaces and into tissue spaces results in tissue damage unless inhibitors are present. Congenital deficiency of A1A is associated with the development of emphysema at an unusually early age and with an increased incidence of neonatal hepatitis, usually progressing to cirrhosis.

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Alpha-2-macroglobulin is a protease inhibitor and is 1 of the largest plasma proteins. It transports hormones and enzymes, exhibits effector and inhibitor functions in the development of the lymphatic system, and inhibits components of the complement system and hemostasis system.


Increased levels of alpha-2-macroglobulin are found in nephrotic syndrome when other lower molecular weight proteins are lost and alpha-2-macroglobulin is retained because of its large size. In patients with liver cirrhosis and diabetes, the levels are found to be elevated.


Patients with acute pancreatitis exhibit low serum concentrations which correlate with the severity of the disease. In hyperfibrinolytic states, after major surgery, in septicemia and severe hepatic insufficiency, the measured levels of alpha-2-macroglobulin are often low. Acute myocardial infarction patients with low alpha-2-macroglobulin have been reported to have a significantly better prognosis with regard to the >1 year survival time.

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Under normal physiologic conditions, the usual daily dietary intake of aluminum (5-10 mg) is completely eliminated. Excretion is accomplished by avid filtration of aluminum from the blood by the glomeruli of the kidney. Patients in renal failure (RF) lose the ability to clear aluminum and are candidates for aluminum toxicity. Many factors increase the incidence of aluminum toxicity in patients in RF:


-Aluminum-laden dialysis water can expose dialysis patients to aluminum.


-Aluminum-laden albumin can expose patients to an aluminum burden they cannot eliminate.


-The dialysis process is not highly effective at eliminating aluminum.


-Aluminum-based phosphate binder gels are administered orally to minimize phosphate accumulation; a small fraction of this aluminum may be absorbed and accumulated.


If it is not removed by renal filtration, aluminum accumulates in the blood where it binds to proteins such as albumin and is rapidly distributed through the body. Aluminum overload leads to accumulation of aluminum at 2 sites: brain and bone. Brain deposition has been implicated as a cause of dialysis dementia. In bone, aluminum replaces calcium at the mineralization front, disrupting normal osteoid formation.


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Primary aminoacidopathies are typically autosomal recessive or X-linked inherited disorders resulting from a deficient enzyme or transport protein. Over 30 aminoacidopathies have been described in the literature. Symptoms range from relatively benign to severe and may include, but are not limited to, growth and mental retardation, developmental delay, learning disabilities, seizures, lethargy, coma, vomiting, metabolic acidosis or alkalosis, sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), osteomalacia, and osteoporosis. Depending on the natural history of the disorder, symptoms may be minimized or prevented by early diagnosis and treatment. Treatment may be based on dietary restrictions and/or supplementation with cofactors (eg, riboflavin or cobalamin) or conjugating agents (eg, carnitine or sodium benzoate)

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This test checks the level of ammonia in your blood. The test helps find out why you may have changes in consciousness and also helps diagnose a liver disease called hepatic encephalopathy. This disease affects how your brain works, because of excess toxins, or poisons, in your body.


Your liver may not work properly if you have high levels of ammonia in your blood. Ammonia is a chemical made by bacteria in your intestines and your body's cells while you process protein. Your body treats ammonia as a waste product. It turns it into an amino acid called glutamine and a chemical compound called urea. Your bloodstream moves the urea to your kidneys, where it is eliminated in your urine.


But ammonia will build up in your body if you can't get rid of urea. This can sometimes happen if you have kidney or liver failure. It can also happen if you have a urea cycle disorder, a genetic disorder that means your body is missing one of the enzymes that remove ammonia from the blood. The ammonia blood test is the gold standard for diagnosing urea cycle disorders.


Too much ammonia in your body can cause psychological problems like confusion, tiredness, and possibly coma or death.


A child's reaction to too much ammonia can include seizures, breathing difficulties, and potentially death.

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A noninvasive diagnostic test for amebic liver abscess is needed, because amebic and bacterial abscesses appear identical on ultrasound or computer tomography and because it is rarely possible to identify Entamoeba histolytica in stool specimens from patients with amebic liver abscess. Here we report a method of detection in serum of circulating E. histolytica Gal/GalNAc lectin to diagnose amebic liver abscess, which was used in patients from Dhaka, Bangladesh. The TechLab E. histolytica II test (which differentiates the true pathogen E. histolytica from Entamoeba dispar) detected Gal/GalNAc lectin in the sera of 22 of 23 (96%) amebic liver abscess patients tested prior to treatment with the antiamebic drug metronidazole and 0 of 70 (0%) controls. After 1 week of treatment with metronidazole, 9 of 11 (82%) patients became serum lectin antigen negative. The sensitivity of the E. histolytica II antigen detection test for intestinal infection was also evaluated. Antigen detection identified E. histolytica infection in 50 samples from 1,164 asymptomatic preschool children aged 2 to 5 years, including 16 of 16 (100%) culture-positive specimens. PCR analysis of stool specimens was used to confirm that most antigen-positive but culture-negative specimens were true-positive: PCR identified parasite DNA in 27 of 34 (79%) of the antigen-positive, culture-negative stool specimens. Antigen detection was a more sensitive test for infection than antilectin antibodies, which were detected in only 76 of 98 (78%) amebic liver abscess patients and in 26 of 50 (52%) patients with intestinal infection. We conclude that the TechLab E. histolytica II kit is a sensitive means to diagnose hepatic and intestinal amebiasis prior to the institution of metronidazole treatment.

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Diagnosis and differential diagnosis of hyperandrogenism (in conjunction with measurements of other sex-steroids). An initial workup in adults might also include total and bioavailable testosterone (TTBS / Testosterone, Total and Bioavailable, Serum) measurements. Depending on results, this may be supplemented with measurements of sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG / Sex Hormone Binding Globulin [SHBG], Serum) and other androgenic steroids (eg, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate [DHEA-S]).


Diagnosis of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), in conjunction with measurement of other androgenic precursors, particularly, 17-alpha-hydroxyprogesterone (OHPG) (OHPG / 17-Hydroxyprogesterone, Serum), 17 alpha-hydroxypregnenolone, DHEA-S (DHES / Dehydroepiandrosterone Sulfate [DHEA-S], Serum), and cortisol (CORT / Cortisol, Serum).


Monitoring CAH treatment, in conjunction with testosterone (TTST / Testosterone, Total, Serum), OHPG (OHPG / 17-Hydroxyprogesterone, Serum), DHEA-S (DHES / Dehydroepiandrosterone Sulfate [DHEA-S], Serum), and DHEA (DHEA_ / Dehydroepiandrosterone [DHEA], Serum).


Diagnosis of premature adrenarche, in conjunction with gonadotropins (FSH / Follicle-Stimulating Hormone [FSH], Serum; LH / Luteinizing Hormone [LH], Serum) and other adrenal and gonadal sex-steroids and their precursors (TTBS / Testosterone, Total and Bioavailable, Serum or TGRP / Testosterone, Total and Free, Serum; EEST / Estradiol, Serum; DHES / Dehydroepiandrosterone Sulfate [DHEA-S], Serum; DHEA_ / Dehydroepiandrosterone [DHEA], Serum; SHBG / Sex Hormone Binding Globulin [SHBG], Serum; OHPG / 17-Hydroxyprogesterone, Serum).

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Culture and Sensitivity Anaerobic test is performed on a sample of blood to measure the level of Culture of the pathogenic organism in the blood.It is performed to confirm Infection and also during the treatment and after the treatment of Infection.

Also known as

C/S Anaerobic Blood, C/S Anaerobic, Culture and Sensitivity Anaerobic

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The immune system makes an abundance of proteins called antibodies. Antibodies are made by white blood cells (B cells). The antibodies recognize and combat infectious organisms (germs) in the body. Antibodies develop in our immune system to help the body fight infectious organisms. When an antibody recognizes the foreign proteins of an infectious organism, it recruits other proteins and cells to fight off the infection. This cascade of attack is called inflammation.


Sometimes these antibodies make a mistake, identifying normal, naturally-occurring proteins in our bodies as being “foreign” and dangerous. When these antibodies make incorrect calls, identifying a naturally-occurring protein (or self protein) as foreign, they are called autoantibodies. Autoantibodies start the cascade of inflammation, causing the body to attack itself. The antibodies that target “normal” proteins within the nucleus of a cell are called antinuclear antibodies (ANA). Most of us have autoantibodies, but typically in small amounts. The presence of large amount of autoantibodies or ANAs can indicate an autoimmune disease. ANAs could signal the body to begin attacking itself which can lead to autoimmune diseases, including lupus, scleroderma, Sjögren’s syndrome, polymyositis/dermatomyositis, mixed connective tissue disease, drug-induced lupus, and autoimmune hepatitis. A positive ANA can also be seen in juvenile arthritis.

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Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) participates in the renin cascade in response to hypovolemia. Its peptidase action on the decapeptide angiotensinogen I results in the hydrolysis of a terminal histidyl leucine dipeptide and the formation of the octapeptide angiotensin II, a potent vasoconstrictor that increases blood pressure.


The primary source of ACE is the endothelium of the lung. ACE activity is increased in sarcoidosis, a systemic granulomatous disease that commonly affects the lungs. In sarcoidosis, ACE is thought to be produced by epithelioid cells and macrophages of the granuloma.


Currently, it appears that ACE activity reflects the severity of sarcoidosis: 68% positivity in those with stage I sarcoidosis, 86% in stage II sarcoidosis, and 91% in stage III sarcoidosis. Serum ACE also appears to reflect the activity of the disease; there is a dramatic decrease in enzyme activity in some patients receiving prednisone.


Other conditions such as Gaucher disease, leprosy, untreated hyperthyroidism, psoriasis, premature infants with respiratory distress syndrome, adults with amyloidosis, and histoplasmosis have been associated with increased levels of ACE.

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Angiotensin II is the primary regulator of renal aldosterone secretion and a potent vasoconstrictor. It is generated through the renin angiotensin system (RAS): circulating angiotensinogen is cleaved by renin to form angiotensin I, which is then converted to angiotensin II via angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE). The rate-limiting step in the RAS is renin secretion by the renal juxtaglomerular cells, modulated by renal blood flow. Low renal blood flow and low perfusion pressure increases renin secretion, stimulating angiotensin II and aldosterone production with a resulting increase in blood pressure and renal sodium retention. These changes then produce inhibition of renin secretion and complete the feedback control loop.

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The antistreptolysin O (ASO) titer test is a blood test that checks for a strep infection. When you come into contact with harmful bacteria, your body produces antibodies to defend itself against these bacteria. Your body produces antibodies specific to the bacteria they fight.


The ASO titer test measures antibodies produced by your body in response to a toxin known as streptolysin O. Streptolysin O is a toxin produced by group A Streptococcus (GAS) bacteria. Your body makes the antistreptolysin O antibodies when you have a strep infection caused by GAS bacteria.


Usually, when you have a strep infection like strep throat, you receive antibiotics that kill the strep bacteria. But some people don’t have any symptoms during a strep infection and may not know they need treatment. When this happens, an untreated infection can lead to future complications. These complications are known as post-streptococcal complications.


The ASO titer test can help your doctor determine if you recently had a strep infection by measuring the presence of antistreptolysin antibodies in your blood.

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Anti B Titre test is performed on a sample of blood to measure the level of Anti B Titre in the blood.It is performed to confirm ABO Incompatibility and also during the treatment and after the treatment of ABO Incompatibility.

Also known as

Anti B Titre Tube Agglutination


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Cardiolipin antibodies (CA) are seen in a subgroup of patients with autoimmune disorders, particularly systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), who are at risk for vascular thrombosis, thrombocytopenia, cerebral infarct and/or recurrent spontaneous abortion. Elevations of CA associated with increased risk have also been seen in idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura, rheumatoid and psoriatic arthritis, and primary Sjögren's syndrome.

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Double-stranded (ds, native) DNA (dsDNA) antibodies of the IgG class are an accepted criterion (American College of Rheumatology) for the diagnosis of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).(1-3) dsDNA antibodies are detectable in approximately 85% of patients with untreated SLE, and are rarely detectable in other connective tissue diseases. Weakly-positive results caused by low-avidity antibodies to dsDNA are not specific for SLE and can occur in a variety of diseases.


Testing for IgG antibodies to dsDNA is indicated in patients who have a positive test for antinuclear antibodies (ANA) along with signs and symptoms that are compatible with the diagnosis of SLE. If the ANA test is negative, there is no reason to test for antibodies to dsDNA.(2)


The levels of IgG antibodies to dsDNA in serum are known to fluctuate with disease activity in lupus erythematosus, often increasing prior to an increase in inflammation and decreasing in response to therapy.

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Fatigue can be described as the lack of energy and motivation (both physical and mental). This is different than drowsiness, a term that describes the need to sleep. Often a person complains of feeling tired and it is up to the health care professional to distinguish between fatigue and drowsiness, though both can occur at the same time. Aside from drowsiness, other symptoms can be confused with fatigue including shortness of breath with activity and muscle weakness. Again, all these symptoms can occur at the same time. Also, fatigue can be a normal response to physical and mental activity; in most normal individuals it is quickly relieved (usually in hours to about a day, depending on the intensity of the activity) by reducing the activity.

Fatigue is a very common complaint and it is important to remember that it is a symptom and not a disease. Many illnesses can result in the complaint of fatigue and they can be physical, psychological, or a combination of the two.

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The test system widely used currently for the determination of anti-HCV permits the detection of anti-HCV IgG alone. The data recently published by T. G. Wreghitt et al. confirm the probability of the presence of anti-HCV of both IgG and IgM classes in sera from hepatitis C patients. Anti-HCV IgM was detected by Ortho test with some modifications using an anti-M conjugate in the last stage of the experiment. Anti-HCV IgG were detected by regular Ortho test. A total of 46 patients with different forms of HCV infection and a control group were examined. According to the preliminary data, 18 patients were positive in the routine anti-HCV Ortho test. Among 18 anti-HCV-positive patients, nine had chronic HCV infection and the other 9 acute HCV infection. The distribution of IgM and IgG anti-HCV in the acute patients was as follows: 4 patients (44.5%) had approximately equal titres of IgG and IgM, 3 (33.5%) had predominantly IgG, 2 (22.2%) mainly IgM. A similar pattern was observed in the group with chronic HCV infection. Thus, 5 subjects (55.6%) showed approximately equal ratio of IgM and IgG anti-HCV, 2 (22.2%) had mostly IgM and the rest 2 mainly IgG. No anti-HCV in the control group was found. The control group consisted of 18 patients with chronic liver diseases without markers of HBV or HDV infection, 3 with HAV infection, 2 with HBV infection and 5 healthy subjects. The specificity of anti-HCV IgM test was confirmed by Chiron Western blot analysis using the same modification.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS).

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Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is the major etiologic agent of enterically transmiited non-A, non-B hepatitis worldwide and has a high case-fatality rate in pregnant women. Both IgM and IgG antibody to HEV (anti-HEV) are produced following infection. The titer of IgM anti-HEV declines rapidly during early convalescence; IgG anti-HEV persists and appears to provide at least short-term protection against disease.

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Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is endemic throughout the world, occurring most commonly, however, in areas of poor hygiene and low socioeconomic conditions. The virus is transmitted primarily by the fecal-oral route, and it is spread by close person-to-person contact and by food- and water-borne epidemics. Outbreaks frequently occur in overcrowded situations and in high-density institutions and centers, such as prisons and health care or day care centers. Viral spread by parenteral routes (eg, exposure to blood) is possible but rare, because infected individuals are viremic for a short period of time (usually <3 weeks). There is little or no evidence of transplacental transmission from mother to fetus or transmission to newborn during delivery.


Serological diagnosis of acute viral hepatitis A depends on the detection of specific anti-HAV IgM. Its presence in the patient's serum indicates a recent exposure to HAV. HAV-specific IgM antibody level becomes detectable in the blood by 4 weeks after infection, persisting at elevated levels for about 2 months before declining to undetectable levels by 6 months. They rarely persist beyond 12 months after infection.

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Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA) can occur in patients with autoimmune vasculitis including Wegener's granulomatosis (WG), microscopic polyangiitis (MPA), or organ-limited variants thereof such as pauci-immune necrotizing glomerulonephritis.(1) Detection of ANCA is a well-established diagnostic test for the evaluation of patients suspected of having autoimmune vasculitis. ANCA react with enzymes in the cytoplasmic granules of human neutrophils including proteinase 3 (PR3), myeloperoxidase (MPO), elastase, and cathepsin G. Antibodies to PR3 occur in patients with WG (both classical WG and WG with limited end-organ involvement) and produce a characteristic pattern of granular cytoplasmic fluorescence on ethanol-fixed neutrophils called the cANCA pattern. Antibodies to MPO occur predominately in patients with MPA and produce a pattern of perinuclear cytoplasmic fluorescence on ethanol-fixed neutrophils called the pANCA pattern.

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An antisperm antibody test looks for special proteins (antibodies) that fight against a man's sperm in blood, vaginal fluids, or semen. The test uses a sample of sperm and adds a substance that binds only to affected sperm.


Semen can cause an immune system response in either the man's or woman's body. The antibodies can damage or kill sperm. If a high number of sperm antibodies come into contact with a man's sperm, it may be hard for the sperm to fertilize an egg. The couple has a hard time becoming pregnant. This is also called immunologic infertility.

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A decrease in Antithrombin III may predispose an individual to thrombosis and to failure to respond to heparin therapy. This can occur as a result of a congenital deficiency, secondary to liver transplant, DIC, nephrotic syndrome, cirrhosis, carcinoma, or in patients with chronic liver failure.

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Your thyroid is a gland located in your neck. It releases hormones that control your metabolism. It produces a number of different proteins, including thyroglobulin. Your thyroid uses thyroglobulin to make the active thyroid hormones.


If you have an autoimmune condition, it can disrupt your production of thyroglobulin. An autoimmune condition happens when your immune system creates antibodies that attack your body’s own healthy cells. When your immune system attacks the thyroid, it often targets thyroglobulin. This causes it to produce antithyroglobulin antibodies. Your doctor can order an antithyroglobulin antibody test to check the level of these antibodies in your bloodstream. A high level may indicate an autoimmune condition

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Apolipoprotein A1 (ApoA1) is the primary protein associated with high-density lipoprotein (HDL) particles, and plays a central role in reverse cholesterol transport.(1) HDL cholesterol (HDL-C) and ApoA1 concentrations are inversely related to the risk for coronary artery disease (CAD).(2) There are a variable number of ApoA1 proteins per HDL particle. Therefore, ApoA1 is not a 1:1 surrogate marker for HDL particles. Similarly, the number of ApoA1 proteins and the amount of cholesterol contained in HDL particles is highly variable. This heterogeneity has led to unique clinical findings related to ApoA1 compared with HDL-C.


Increased ApoA1 concentrations are more strongly associated with a reduction in risk of a first myocardial infarction than HDL-C concentrations.(3) Low concentrations of ApoA1, but not HDL-C, are predictive of preclinical atherosclerosis as assed by computed tomography estimated coronary artery calcium (CAC) scoring.(4) Increased ApoA1, but not HDL-C concentrations, are associated with reduced cardiovascular events among statin-treated patients, even when LDL-C <50 mg/dL.(5) In statin-treated patients, patients whose ApoA1 increased while on treatment were at lower risk than those whose ApoA1 did not increase.


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The activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) assay is used as a screening test to evaluate the overall integrity of the intrinsic/common coagulation pathway and to monitor patients on heparin therapy.


This test reflects the activities of most of the coagulation factors in the intrinsic and common procoagulant pathway, but not the extrinsic procoagulant pathway, which includes factor VII and tissue factor, nor the activity of factor XIII (fibrin stabilizing factor).


Effective November 2016, APTT will no longer be used as the primary method for therapeutic heparin monitoring, for that purpose, order the heparin anti-Xa assay HEPTP / Heparin Anti-Xa Assay, Plasma.

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During normal cellular function, proteins are broken down into nitrogen waste products and put into the blood stream as ammonia. The urea cycle transforms this toxin into urea, which can be safely removed by the kidneys as urine. Lack of an enzyme from the urea cycle, such as arginase, can result in the buildup of toxins in the body. There are six diseases that belong in the group of urea cycle disorders . Arginase is thought to be the rarest of these disorders.


The enzyme arginase is the last step of the urea cycle, where it turns arginine into ornithine and urea. If a person is born with arginase deficiency then they build up arginine in their blood. This is called argininemia. Since earlier steps in the urea cycle are left intact, patients may or may not build up ammonia in the blood. Commonly, the build up of arginine presents as a central nervous system disease or developmental delay in young children.

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 Some fat in your liver is normal. But if it makes up more than 5%-10% of the organ's weight, you may have fatty liver disease. If you're a drinker, stop. That's one of the key causes of the condition.

There are two main types of fatty liver disease:-

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD)
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)

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Arginine vasopressin (AVP), or antidiuretic hormone (ADH), is a nonapeptide produced by the hypothalamus and released from the posterior pituitary in response to extracellular fluid hyperosmolarity and hypovolemia. AVP promotes concentration of the urine by increasing water reabsorption in the kidney tubules. Inadequate AVP action causes diabetes insipidus (DI), a syndrome characterized by nonglycosuric polyuria, polydipsia, and dehydration. Central DI refers to insufficient AVP release due to diseases of the hypothalamus, pituitary stalk, and pituitary gland. Nephrogenic DI is the result of impaired renal responsiveness to AVP and may be congenital or due to renal disease, hypokalemia, hypercalcemia, systemic disorders (eg, multiple myeloma and amyloidosis), or drugs (eg, lithium or demeclocycline and ethanol).


DI diagnosis is based on the presence of hyperosmolar serum with inappropriately dilute urine. Central and nephrogenic DI can be differentiated by measuring the plasma AVP level and interpreting it in light of the simultaneous plasma osmolality.


The syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone (SIADH) is manifested by hyponatremia and inappropriately concentrated urine. The diagnosis is confirmed by plasma or urine AVP levels inappropriate for serum osmolality.

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Arsenic is perhaps the best known of the metal toxins, having gained notoriety from its extensive use by Renaissance nobility as an antisyphilitic agent and, paradoxically, as an antidote against acute arsenic poisoning. Even today, arsenic is still 1 of the more common toxicants found in insecticides, and leaching from bedrock to contaminate groundwater.


The toxicity of arsenic is due to 3 different mechanisms, 2 of them related to energy transfer. Arsenic covalently and avidly binds to dihydrolipoic acid, a necessary cofactor for pyruvate dehydrogenase. Absence of the cofactor inhibits the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl coenzyme A, the first step in gluconeogenesis. This results in loss of energy supply to anaerobic cells, the predominant mechanism of action of arsenic on neural cells that rely on anaerobic respiration for energy. Neuron cell destruction that occurs after long-term energy loss results in bilateral peripheral neuropathy.


Arsenic also competes with phosphate for binding to adenosine triphosphate during its synthesis by mitochondria via oxidative phosphorylation, causing formation of the lower energy adenosine diphosphate monoarsine. This results in loss of energy supply to aerobic cells. Cardiac cells are particularly sensitive to this form of energy loss; fatigue due to poor cardiac output is a common symptom of arsenic exposure.

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Abdominal ultrasonography, diagnostic paracentesis, and ascitic fluid cultures are recommended by the British Society of Gastroenterology, the European Association for the Study of the Liver (EASL), and the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases (AASLD), particularly in the setting of supsected infection. [1]


Laparoscopy may be valuable for the diagnosis of otherwise unexplained cases, especially if malignant ascites is suspected. [6]  This may be of particular importance in the diagnosis of malignant mesothelioma.

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The antistreptolysin O (ASO) titer test is a blood test that checks for a strep infection. When you come into contact with harmful bacteria, your body produces antibodies to defend itself against these bacteria. Your body produces antibodies specific to the bacteria they fight.


The ASO titer test measures antibodies produced by your body in response to a toxin known as streptolysin O. Streptolysin O is a toxin produced by group A Streptococcus (GAS) bacteria. Your body makes the antistreptolysin O antibodies when you have a strep infection caused by GAS bacteria.


Usually, when you have a strep infection like strep throat, you receive antibiotics that kill the strep bacteria. But some people don’t have any symptoms during a strep infection and may not know they need treatment. When this happens, an untreated infection can lead to future complications. These complications are known as post-streptococcal complications.


The ASO titer test can help your doctor determine if you recently had a strep infection by measuring the presence of antistreptolysin antibodies in your blood.

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Aspergillus precipitin is a laboratory test performed on your blood. It’s ordered when a doctor suspects that you have an infection caused by the fungus Aspergillus.


The test may also be called:


aspergillus fumigatus 1 precipitin level test

aspergillus antibody test

aspergillus immunodiffusion test

test for precipitating antibodies


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Volume regulation and hemodynamic functions change during pregnancy, leading to marked increases in blood volume and cardiac output, peripheral vasodilatation and reduced sensitivity to angiotensin. Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) is intimately involved in fluid and sodium homeostasis and exerts marked relaxant activity on vascular smooth muscle pre-contracted with angiotensin. This study was performed to clarify the role of ANP as a regulator of maternal physiology.

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Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is endemic throughout the world. The infection is spread primarily through percutaneous contact with infected blood products (eg, blood transfusion, sharing of needles by intravenous drug addicts). The virus is also found in various human body fluids, and it is known to be spread through oral and genital contacts. HBV can be transmitted from mother to child during delivery through contact with blood and vaginal secretions, but it is not commonly transmitted transplacentally.

 

Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) is the first serologic marker appearing in the serum at 6 to 16 weeks following exposure to HBV. In acute infection, HBsAg usually disappears in 1 to 2 months after the onset of symptoms. Persistence of HBsAg for more than 6 months in duration indicates development of either a chronic carrier state or chronic HBV infection.

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Vitamin B12 and folate deficiencies are a lack of these two B complex vitamins that the body needs for several important functions. They are required to make normal red blood cells (RBCs), repair tissues and cells, synthesize DNA (the genetic material in cells). B12 is also important for normal nerve cell function. B12 and folate (also known as folic acid or vitamin B9) are nutrients that cannot be produced in the body and must be...

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B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) is a hormone produced by your heart. N-terminal (NT)-pro hormone BNP (NT-proBNP) is a non-active prohormone that is released from the same molecule that produces BNP. Both BNP and NT-proBNP are released in response to changes in pressure inside the heart. These changes can be related to heart failure and other cardiac problems. Levels goes up when heart failure develops or gets worse, and levels goes down when heart failure is stable. In most cases, BNP and NT-proBNP levels are higher in patients with heart failure than people who have normal heart function.

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Babesiosis is a zoonotic infection caused by the protozoan parasite Babesia microti. The infection is acquired by contact with Ixodes ticks carrying the parasite. The deer mouse is the animal reservoir and, overall, the epidemiology of this infection is much like that of Lyme disease. Babesiosis is most prevalent in the Northeast, Upper Midwest, and Pacific Coast of the United States.


Infectious forms (sporozoites) are injected during tick bites and the organism enters the vascular system where it infects RBCs. In this intraerythrocytic stage it becomes disseminated throughout the reticuloendothelial system. Asexual reproduction occurs in RBCs, and daughter cells (merozoites) are formed which are liberated on rupture (hemolysis) of the RBC.


Most cases of babesiosis are probably subclinical or mild, but the infection can be severe and life threatening, especially in older or asplenic patients. Fever, fatigue, malaise, headache, and other flu-like symptoms occur most commonly. In the most severe cases, hemolysis, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and shock may develop. Patients may have hepatomegaly and splenomegaly.


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The Bence-Jones protein (BJP) test measures the level of BJP in your urine. Bence-Jones proteins are named for Henry Bence-Jones, a physician and chemist who first isolated them in 1847. These proteins are not present in healthy urine samples and are usually a sign of multiple myeloma. Multiple myeloma is a type of bone marrow cancer that is most common in people who are older than 60 years.


Your bone marrow is found in the center of your larger bones. It makes red and white blood cells as well as platelets. Multiple myeloma is a condition where your bone marrow makes too much of a type of white blood cell.


Normally, white blood cells make many different types of antibodies. They play an important role in your immune system. However, when you have multiple myeloma, one white blood cell line grows out of control. It produces only one type of antibody. These cells then crowd out the normal cells. Your body is then vulnerable to illness.

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The quantitative human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) blood test measures the level of hCG hormone present in a sample of your blood. HCG is a hormone that is produced during pregnancy. Your doctor may refer to the hCG quantitative test by another name, including:


quantitative serial beta-hCG test

repeat quantitative beta-hCG test

beta-hCG blood test

quantitative blood pregnancy test

In some cases, the hCG quantitative blood test may also be used to evaluate and manage certain types of cancer.

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Beta-2-microglobulin (beta-2-M) is a small membrane protein (11,800 Dalton) associated with the heavy chains of class I major histocompatibility complex proteins and is, therefore, on the surface of all nucleated cells. The small size allows beta-2-M to pass through the glomerular membrane, but it is almost completely reabsorbed in the proximal tubules.


Serum beta-2-M levels are elevated in diseases associated with increased cell turnover. Levels are also elevated in several benign conditions such as chronic inflammation, liver disease, renal dysfunction, some acute viral infections, and a number of malignancies, especially hematologic malignancies associated with the B-lymphocyte lineage.


In multiple myeloma, beta-2-M is a powerful prognostic factor and values <4 mcg/mL are considered a good prognostic factor.


In renal tubular disease, serum levels are low and urine levels are high. Although urine beta-2-M has been used to assess tubular dysfunction, it is not stable in urine below pH 5.5.


See Laboratory Screening Tests for Suspected Multiple Myeloma in Special Instructions.

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This test looks for bilirubin in your blood or urine.

Bilirubin is a substance made when your body breaks down old red blood cells. This is a normal process. Bilirubin is also part of bile, which your liver makes to help digest the food you eat.


A small amount of bilirubin in your blood is normal. Healthy adults make 250 to 350 milligrams (mg) of bilirubin each day.

Bilirubin that is bound to a certain protein (albumin) in the blood is called unconjugated, or indirect, bilirubin. Conjugated, or direct, bilirubin travels from the liver into the small intestine. A very small amount passes into your kidneys and is excreted in your urine. This bilirubin also gives urine its distinctive yellow color.


This test is usually done to look for liver problems, such as hepatitis, or blockages, such as gallstones.

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Bilirubin is a yellow pigment that’s in everyone’s blood and stool. Sometimes the liver can’t process the bilirubin in the body. This can be due to an excess of bilirubin, an obstruction, or inflammation of the liver. When your body has too much bilirubin, your skin and the whites of your eyes will start to yellow. This condition is called jaundice. A bilirubin test will help determine if you have any of these conditions.


Bilirubin is made in the body when the hemoglobin protein in old red blood cells is broken down. The breakdown of old cells is a normal, healthy process. After circulating in your blood, bilirubin then travels to your liver. In the liver, bilirubin is conjugated, mixed into bile, and then excreted into the bile ducts and stored in your gallbladder. Eventually, the bile is released into the small intestine to help digest fats. It’s ultimately excreted within your stool.


Bilirubin attached by the liver to the glucose-derived acid, glucuronic acid, is called direct, or conjugated, bilirubin. Bilirubin not attached to glucuronic acid is called indirect, or unconjugated, bilirubin. All the bilirubin in your blood together is called total bilirubin.


A comprehensive bilirubin blood test will get an accurate count of all three bilirubin levels in your blood: direct, indirect, and total.


In both adults and children, symptoms related to high bilirubin can involve jaundice, a yellowing of the skin or eyes, fatigue, itchy skin, dark urine, and low appetite.

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A Liver Function Test, also known as LFT, refers to a series of tests carried out to gather information about a patient’s liver conditions. Certain diseases of the liver, which seem mild in their initial stages, can develop to become chronic later on. Hence, proper diagnosis of liver conditions is pretty crucial for the detection and control of these ailments in time.


Liver function tests are performed on blood samples of the patients, and check the levels of various enzymes and proteins present in it. There are enzymes that get released into the blood only when the liver has undergone some damage. While some of the tests are carried out for functionality, a few others may be performed to check the condition of the biliary tract. Cellular integrity tests are also included in the series.


Liver function tests (LFTs), are a group of blood tests that provide details about the liver and identify any inflammation, malfunctioning or damage to the liver. Liver tests may be done together in a panel or tested separately. The list of tests include: Total Protein Albumin Bilirubin (Total & Direct) Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT) Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) Serum Glutamic Oxaloacetic Transaminase (SGOT) or AST Serum Glutamate Pyruvate Transaminase (SGPT) or ALT.

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The dimorphic fungus, Blastomyces dermatitidis, causes blastomycosis. When the organism is inhaled, it causes pulmonary disease-cough, pain, and hemoptysis, along with fever and night sweats. It commonly spreads to the skin, bone, or internal genitalia where suppuration and granulomas are typical. Occasionally, primary cutaneous lesions after trauma are encountered; however, this type of infection is uncommon.

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A bleeding time test determines how quickly your blood clots to stop bleeding. The test involves making small, superficial cuts on your skin. They’re similar to light scratches.


The test is a basic assessment of how well your blood platelets work -form clots. Platelets are tiny cell fragments that circulate in your blood. They’re the first cells to react to a blood vessel injury. They seal off the wound to prevent more blood from escaping.

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A blood culture is a test that checks for foreign invaders like bacteria, yeast, and other microorganisms in your blood. Having these pathogens in your bloodstream can be a sign of a blood infection, a condition known as bacteremia. A positive blood culture means that you have bacteria in your blood.

This type of infection involves the blood that circulates within your entire body. Bacteria that start on your skin or in your lungs, urine, or gastrointestinal tract are common sources of blood infections.

An infection can spread to your blood and become systemic if it’s severe or if your immune system isn’t able to keep it contained. A systemic infection is known as sepsis.

The test for a blood culture involves a simple blood draw. A laboratory tests the blood sample and forwards the results to your doctor, who will use the findings to help determine what’s needed to treat any infection.
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A blood gas test measures the amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood. It may also be used to determine the pH of the blood, or how acidic it is. The test is commonly known as a blood gas analysis or arterial blood gas (ABG) test.


Your red blood cells transport oxygen and carbon dioxide throughout your body. These are known as blood gases. As blood passes through your lungs, oxygen flows into the blood while carbon dioxide flows out of the blood into the lungs. The blood gas test can determine how well your lungs are able to move oxygen into the blood and remove carbon dioxide from the blood.


Imbalances in the oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH levels of your blood can indicate the presence of certain medical conditions. These may include:


kidney failure

heart failure

uncontrolled diabetes

hemorrhage

chemical poisoning

a drug overdose

shock

Your doctor may order a blood gas test when you’re showing symptoms of any of these conditions. The test requires the collection of a small amount of blood from an artery. It’s a safe and simple procedure that only takes a few minutes to complete.

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A small sore situated on the face or in the mouth that causes pain, burning, or itching before bursting and crusting over. The favorite locations are on the lips, chin or cheeks and in the nostrils. Less frequented sites are the gums or roof of the mouth (the palate).

Fever blisters are caused by herpes simplex virus type 1. It lies latent (dormant) in the body and is reawakened (reactivated) by factors such as stress, sunburn, or fever from a wide range of infectious diseases including colds. Recurrences are less common after age 35. Sunscreen (SPF 15 or more) on the lips prevents recurrences of herpes from sunburn.

The virus is highly contagious when fever blisters are present. It is spread by kissing. Children become infected by contact with someone who has a fever blister and then they spread the virus by rubbing their cold sore and touching other children. A person with fever blisters should be careful not to touch the blisters and spread the virus to new sites, such as the eyes or genitals.

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Arterial blood gases (ABGs) are commonly used for estimating the acid-base status, oxygenation and carbon dioxide concentration of unwell patients. However, arterial blood can be difficult to obtain due to weak pulses or patient movement. Due to thicker, muscular and innervated walls, arteries are also more painful to puncture than veins. As such, a venous blood gas (VBG) is an alternative method of estimating pH and other variables.

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Blood typing is a test that determines a person’s blood type. The test is essential if you need a blood transfusion or are planning to donate blood. Not all blood types are compatible, so it’s important to know your blood group. Receiving blood that’s incompatible with your blood type could trigger a dangerous immune response.

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Sometimes a sample of bone marrow must be examined to determine why blood cells are abnormal or why there are too few or too many of a specific kind of blood cell. A doctor can take two different types of bone marrow samples:


Bone marrow aspirate: Removes fluid and cells by inserting a needle into the bone marrow and sucking out fluid and cells


Bone marrow core biopsy: Removes an intact piece of bone marrow using a coring device (similar to a larger diameter needle)

The bone marrow aspirate shows what cells, normal and abnormal, are present in the bone marrow. The core biopsy shows how full the bone marrow is with cells and where the cells are located within the marrow. Both types of samples are usually taken from the hipbone (iliac crest), although aspirates are rarely taken from the breastbone (sternum). In very young children, bone marrow samples are occasionally taken from one of the bones in the lower leg (tibia).

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Bronchial washing is part of a procedure called a bronchoscopy, in which a physician looks into the lungs with a fiber-optic bronchoscope to check for irregularities and take tissue samples. The physician injects saline through the bronchoscope into the lung and then suctions it back out. By checking the wash return fluid, the doctor can diagnose bleeding, pneumonia, industrial pollutants, fungal infections and different kinds of lung cancer. Patients undergoing bronchial washing usually receive topical anesthesia with sedation. Most side effects of bronchial washing are mild and include coughing, sore throat and a sleepy feeling from being sedated.

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This is a blood test for brucellosis. Brucellosis is an infectious disease usually caused by handling animals or milk products infected with the brucella bacteria. If you have brucellosis, your body will make certain antibodies to fight the brucella bacteria. This test looks for those antibodies in your blood.


The brucella bacteria can infect dogs and livestock, including cows, sheep, camels, goats, and pigs. Recently brucella bacteria have also been found in ocean mammals, including seals.


The disease is rare in the U.S. Fewer than 200 cases are reported here each year. It's more commonly found in Latin America, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean. This is why it's often called Mediterranean or Malta fever. It's also called Undulant fever, Bang's disease, and Gibraltar fever.


If you are exposed to brucella bacteria, you may develop brucellosis. Your symptoms may not show up right away. But if the disease isn't treated after a few months, you may start to feel unusually weak. You may get a fever and chills, headaches, backache, muscle and joint pain, and sweats. You may lose your appetite and appear anorexic. If untreated, the bacteria can sometimes damage the heart, joints, or central nervous system. They can also cause infections that keep coming back. If you are pregnant and have brucellosis, it may cause a miscarriage or infect your unborn child. 

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The test is a simple method to identifying a person’s gender and establish sexual identity in newborns and in adults. Earlier the method was popularly employed in competitive sports to identify males masquerading as females. 


The mouth has to be rinsed and washed before the test. A spatula is used to gently scrape the inside of the person’s cheek. This can be done by a health care provider or by self. A smear of this buccal sample is made on a slide, stained and observed under the microscope.

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A BUN, or blood urea nitrogen test, can provide important information about your kidney function. The main job of your kidneys is to remove waste and extra fluid from your body. If you have kidney disease, this waste material can build up in your blood and may lead to serious health problems, including high blood pressure, anemia, and heart disease.


The test measures the amount of urea nitrogen in your blood. Urea nitrogen is one of the waste products removed from your blood by your kidneys. Higher than normal BUN levels may be a sign that your kidneys aren't working efficiently.


People with early kidney disease may not have any symptoms. A BUN test can help uncover kidney problems at an early stage when treatment can be more effective.


Other names for a BUN test: Urea nitrogen test, serum BUN

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C-peptide is a substance, a short chain of amino acids, that is released into the blood as a byproduct of the formation of insulin by the pancreas. This test measures the amount of C-peptide in a blood or urine sample.


In the pancreas, within specialized cells called beta cells, proinsulin, a biologically inactive molecule, splits apart to form one molecule of C-peptide and one molecule of insulin. Insulin is vital for the transport of glucose into the body's cells and is required on a daily basis. When insulin is required and released from the beta cells into the blood in response to increased levels of glucose, equal amounts of C-peptide are also released. Since C-peptide is produced at the same rate as insulin, it is useful as a marker of insulin production.


In particular, C-peptide testing can be used to help evaluate the production of insulin made by the body (endogenous) and to help differentiate it from insulin that is not produced by the body but is taken in as diabetic medication (exogenous) and so does not generate C-peptide. This test may be done in conjunction with an insulin test.





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CA 19-9 (carbohydrate antigen 19-9, also called cancer antigen 19-9 or sialylated Lewis (a) antigen) is a tumor marker that is used primarily in the management of pancreatic cancer. CA 19-9 is an antigen defined by monoclonal antibody binding to CA 19-9, the tumor surface marker Sialyl-Lewis A.

CA 19-9 can be elevated in many types of gastrointestinal cancer, such as colorectal cancer, esophageal cancer and hepatocellular carcinoma.Apart from cancer, elevated levels may also occur in pancreatitis, cirrhosis,and diseases of the bile ducts.It can be elevated in people with obstruction of the bile ducts.

In patients who lack the Lewis antigen (a blood type antigen on red blood cells), which is about 10% of the Caucasian population, CA 19-9 is not expressed,even in those with large tumors.This is because of a deficiency of a fucosyltransferase enzyme that is needed to produce CA 19-9 as well as the Lewis antigen.


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In horses there are 7 blood group systems (A,C,D,K,P,Q,U) with greater than 30 red blood cell factors. Of these, Ca seems to be one of the most immunogenic antigens (causing allo-immunization).


Transfusion reactions

Blood typing before transfusion minimizes the risk of transfusion reactions and prevent immunization of the recepient against incompatible RBC antigens. Ca, Aa and Qa antigens are clinically important for their role in transfusion reactions.


Neonatal isoerythrolysis (NI)


NI is a potentially fatal condition in new foals that result from an incompatibility of blood types between the mare and the foal. It is caused when the mare produces antibodies against the foal RBC and transfers those antibodies through colostrum.

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CA15-3 is a tumour marker. It is used to check how breast cancer treatment is working and look for cancer that has come back, or recurred, after treatment.

If you are diagnosed with breast cancer that has spread to other parts of the body, or metastasized, you may have this test, along with other tests such as hormone receptor testing and HER2 status testing.

CA15-3 is not measured for early stage breast cancer because the levels of this protein are rarely higher than normal at this stage.

A CA15-3 test is a blood test done with a needle. It’s usually done in a private lab or hospital lab. You don’t need to do anything special to prepare.

CA15-3 levels can be higher than normal with cancerous and non-cancerous conditions. CA15-3 is most often increased in breast cancer that has spread to other parts of the body.

In general, the higher the level of CA15-3 in the blood, the more cancer there is in the body. The levels are highest when breast cancer has spread to the bones, the liver or both. If the level of CA15-3 goes down or returns to normal, it may mean that treatment is working. If levels increase over time, it may mean that the cancer is not responding well to treatment, is still growing or is coming back (recurring).

CA15-3 may be higher than normal in cancer of the lung, pancreas, ovary and prostate, but these levels are not as high as with breast cancer.

Non-cancerous conditions that increase CA 15-3 include endometriosis, pelvic inflammatory disease and liver disease. It can also be increased during pregnancy. With these conditions, CA15-3 levels usually only go so high. They don’t usually keep climbing over time.



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Cancer antigen 27.29 (CA 27.29) is a blood test that is done specifically for people with breast cancer. It is one of the breast cancer tumor markers that can be used to monitor the course of the disease. One version of this test is called the " truquant BR radioimmunoassay test."
CA 27.29 is an antigen—that is, a specific type of protein present on the surface of cells and is produced by a gene called MUC-1.
CA-27 is a "glycoproteins," (glyco means sugar) and may be present on the surface of epithelial cells like breast cancer cells.  Breast cancer cells can shed copies of the CA 27.29 protein into the bloodstream too.
A blood CA 27.29 measurement is ordinarily less than 40 U/ml. With cancer, Ca-27 levels may increase, the higher the value, the greater the likelihood this may indicate the presence of cancer.
It can help to break down the different ways in which the CA 27.29 biomarker test may be used:

1.Diagnosis—This test is not often done to diagnose breast cancer, at least not alone. It's mentioned here to make note that the CA 27.29 test is the only blood test used specifically to determine the presence of breast cancer cells. If you have or think you may have early stage breast cancer, this test may be performed to help make your diagnosis.

2.To monitor treatments—The CA 27.29 test is often done to monitor your response to breast cancer treatments. If your levels rise, it may indicate that your cancer is coming back or progressing, and it may be necessary to adjust your treatments accordingly.  If your levels fall, it may indicate that your treatment is effectively killing your cancer.

3.To look for early recurrence—If your treatment for breast cancer has been completed, this test may be done at regular intervals to detect an early recurrence of your cancer. An elevation of CA 27.29 occurs, on average, around five months before a recurrence is evident based on symptoms or imaging studies alone. Despite this, there is still debate over whether or not finding a recurrence of cancer before symptoms makes a difference in the treatment and, ultimately, the outcome of the disease.

4.To monitor metastatic cancer (status check)—The test may help those with metastatic breast cancer know if their cancer is progressing. That said, elevated levels can linger for some time and, in one study, 30 percent of people had elevated levels which persisted for two to three months after the onset of effective treatment.

This test is not recommended as a method of screening for breast cancer, or as a way to diagnose breast cancer alone, as it lacks what scientists refer to as predictive value.
Moreover, physicians vary tremendously in their practice of ordering this test. Some physicians put little emphasis on the test, whereas others routinely order it on a regular basis.
It's important to note the limitations of the CA 27.29 test. In monitoring the treatment of metastatic breast cancer—how this test is most commonly used—it’s important to again note that elevated levels of CA 27.29 may persist for up to three months after treatment has been completed.
In other words, if you have the test done a few months after finishing treatment, the levels could still be high even if you are responding well to the treatment.
Since the CA 27.29 test is the only test used specifically to detect the presence of breast cancer cells, it would seem that it would be ordered more often to screen for breast cancer.
Yet, as noted, the test lacks predictive value in determining the presence of a breast cancer. 
Positive predictive value refers to the likelihood that you have a disease if you test positive for the disease. There are many tests in medicine that would seem to make sense as a method of screening for a disease, yet in studies, lack the accuracy to make a difference in survival rates.
The final limitation is when the test is used to find a recurrence. There is much debate over whether finding a recurrence of breast cancer early could make a difference. While, at first glance, it would seem that there would be benefits to this practice, studies have not found that survival rates improve when a recurrence of breast cancer is found early.
Part of the confusion lies in the goals of treatment for early-stage breast cancer versus metastatic breast cancer. With early stage breast cancer, the goal is usually to treat the disease aggressively in order to cure the cancer (or at least keep it from ever returning.) Aggressive treatment, however, is not the goal of metastatic breast cancer (though this may change in the near future) as it hasn't seemed to make a difference in survival rates. Instead, the goal is to usually use the least amount of treatment possible to control the disease. 

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CA 72 - 4 test is performed on a sample of blood to measure level of CA 72 - 4 in blood.It is performed to detect Gastrointestinal Cancer

Also known as GI Cancer Antigen 72-4 Monoclonal Antibody Blood, GI Cancer CA 72-4 Monoclonal Antibody Blood, GI Cancer Marker 72-4 Monoclonal Antibody Blood, GI Cancer Antigen 72-4, GI Cancer CA 72-4, GI Cancer Marker 72-4.

No special preparation is needed for CA 72 - 4. Inform your doctor if you are on any medications or have any underlying medical conditions or allergies before undergoing CA 72 - 4. Your doctor depending on your condition will give specific instructions.

CA 72 - 4 is done using Monoclonal Antibody method on a Blood sample. A blood sample of minimum 5mL is required for this test.

The normal result for CA 72 - 4 for CA 72 - 4 is < 7U/ml for Unisex gender and for All age groups.

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The toxicity of cadmium resembles the other heavy metals (arsenic, mercury, and lead) in that it attacks the kidney; renal dysfunction with proteinuria with slow onset (over a period of years) is the typical presentation.


Breathing the fumes of cadmium vapors leads to nasal epithelial deterioration and pulmonary congestion resembling chronic emphysema.


The most common source of chronic exposure comes from spray painting of organic-based paints without use of a protective breathing apparatus; aut

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The reference intervals are dependent on the method used for assessment.


Reference intervals based on sex and thyroid status have been established in healthy, unstimulated (eg, pentagastrin provocative test or post-calcium infusion) individuals and in stimulated individuals, as follows:


Basal reference ranges for some calcitonin chemiluminescent assays: Less than 8.8 pg/mL (ng/L) in males; less than 5.8 pg/mL (ng/L) in females; less than 0.5 pg/ml (ng/L) in athyroidal individuals

Peak calcium infusion (IMMULITE 2000 calcitonin assay): Less than or equal to 130 pg/mL in males; less than or equal to 90 pg/mL in females

Age, pregnancy, lactation, and ingestion of food have been reported to influence calcitonin concentration in healthy individuals, but specific reference intervals have not been established. 

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Calcium is an important mineral that your body uses in many ways. It increases the strength of your bones and teeth and helps your muscles and nerves function.


A serum calcium blood test measures the total calcium in your blood. There are several different forms of calcium in your blood. These include ionized calcium, calcium bound to other minerals called anions, and calcium bound to proteins like albumin. Ionized calcium, also known as free calcium, is the most active form.

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A calcium blood test measures the amount of calcium in your blood. Calcium is one of the most important minerals in your body. You need calcium for healthy bones and teeth. Calcium is also essential for proper functioning of your nerves, muscles, and heart. About 99% of your body's calcium is stored in your bones. The remaining 1% circulates in the blood. If there is too much or too little calcium in the blood, it may be a sign of bone disease, thyroid disease, kidney disease, or other medical conditions.

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Medullary thyroid cancer can be highly aggressive, especially if the diagnosis is done in advanced stages. Early diagnosis is based on RET genetic testing, for familial forms, and on the routine measurement of calcitonin (Ct). Nevertheless, since false-positive results can be obtained with the basal measurement of Ct, a provocative test to evaluate stimulated Ct is often needed. Pentagastrin which has been widely used to stimulate basal Ct, especially in European countries, is now hardly available. Thus, the stimulation with calcium (Ca), used in the 1970s-1980s and then abandoned for around 30 years, has recently elicited more interest. In the past 3 years, studies in patients and normal controls have demonstrated that the stimulation with Ca (2.3-2.5 mg/kg of elemental Ca, corresponding to 25 mg/kg of Ca gluconate) is highly potent and accurate. Novel gender-related cut-offs have been proposed for the Ca test, though the analysis of additional large series is predicted to modify these preliminary data. Finally, Ca seems to be the test of choice to stimulate Ct for the diagnosis and follow-up of medullary thyroid cancer, also because it is widely available, has a low cost and it is associated with a low number and intensity of side effects. In the present review the different methods to stimulate Ct and the cut-offs for the identification of the hyperplastic/neoplastic transformation of the C cells will be reported and discussed.

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Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) is a glycoprotein normally found in embryonic entodermal epithelium.


Increased levels may be found in patients with primary colorectal cancer or other malignancies including medullary thyroid carcinoma and breast, gastrointestinal tract, liver, lung, ovarian, pancreatic, and prostatic cancers.


Serial monitoring of CEA should begin prior to therapy to verify post therapy decrease in concentration and to establish a baseline for evaluating possible recurrence. Levels generally return to normal within 1 to 4 months after removal of cancerous tissue.

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Evaluation of carnitine in serum, plasma, tissue, and urine screens patients for suspected primary disorders of the carnitine cycle, or secondary disturbances in carnitine levels as a result of organic acidemias and fatty acid oxidation disorders. In the latter disorders, acyl-CoA groups accumulate and are excreted into the urine and bile as carnitine derivatives, resulting in a secondary carnitine deficiency. More than 100 such primary and secondary disorders have been described. Individually, the incidence of these disorders varies from less than 1 in 10,000 to more than 1 in 1,000,000 live births. Collectively, their incidence is approximately 1 in 1,000 live births. Primary carnitine deficiency has an incidence of approximately 1 in 21,000 live births based on Minnesota newborn screening data.


Other conditions which could cause an abnormal carnitine level are neuromuscular diseases, gastrointestinal disorders, familial cardiomyopathy, renal tubulopathies and chronic renal failure (dialysis), and prolonged treatment with steroids, antibiotics (pivalic acid), anticonvulsants (valproic acid), and total parenteral nutrition.

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Vitamin A, also known as retinol, plays an important role in the formation of rhodopsin, a photoreceptor pigment in the retina of the eye. Vitamin A helps to maintain epithelial tissues. Vitamin A is a group of unsaturated nutritional organic compounds, including beta-carotene.


Typically the liver stores 80%-90% of the body's vitamin A. Primary Vitamin A deficiency is usually caused by dietary deprivation for a long period of time, but it can also stem from fat malabsorption or liver disorders.


In children with complicated measles, vitamin A can shorten the duration of the disorder and reduce the severity of symptoms and risk of death. The younger the patient, the more severe the effects of vitamin A deficiency are. Mortality rate can exceed 50% in children with severe vitamin A deficiency.

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A test for catecholamines measures the amount of the hormones epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine in the blood. These catecholamines are made by nerve tissue camera.gif, the brain, and the adrenal glands. Catecholamines help the body respond to stress or fright and prepare the body for "fight-or-flight" reactions.


The adrenal glands make large amounts of catecholamines as a reaction to stress. The main catecholamines are epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and dopamine. They break down into vanillylmandelic acid (VMA), metanephrine, and normetanephrine. Metanephrine and normetanephrine also may be measured during a catecholamine test.


Catecholamines increase heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, muscle strength, and mental alertness. They also lower the amount of blood going to the skin and intestines and increase blood going to the major organs, such as the brain, heart, and kidneys.


Certain rare tumors (such as a pheochromocytoma) can increase the amount of catecholamines in the blood. This causes high blood pressure, excessive sweating, headaches, fast heartbeats (palpitations), and tremors.


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Ceruloplasmin, a glycoprotein produced in the liver, carries or transports more than 95 percent of the copper in blood plasma.


Copper plays an important role in the body by aiding crucial bodily processes. These include producing energy, forming connective tissue, and helping your central nervous system function.


A ceruloplasmin test can determine the levels of ceruloplasmin in your body. It’s most often used in the diagnosis of Wilson’s disease, a genetic disorder.

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A vaginal swab test involves taking a sample of vaginal secretions with a device that looks like a cotton bud. The swab, with secretions attached, is then placed in a special container and sent to the microbiology laboratory for further analysis. When it reaches the laboratory the sample is then plated on a Petrie dish, which is a flat dish containing a special jelly. The dish is then placed in a special incubator that maintains a particular level of heat and humidity, which facilitates the growth of any bacteria that may be contained in the sample. The jelly in the Petrie dish is a nutrient material that allows any bacteria in the sample to colonise the surface of the jelly. This is the process that is referred to when we send a swab for culture. In other words the lab technician is attempting to make the bacteria reproduce and multiply by creating a favourable yet artificial environment. Having succeeded in creating the bacterial colonies on the Petrie dish various antibiotics are then added to the dish to determine which antibiotics are the most effective in eliminating the bacterial colonies from the dish. Therefore culture and sensitivity simply refers to the process whereby the bacteria in the sample are identified and then tested to determine which antibiotics are needed to eliminate them. “Culture and sensitivity” testing is widely used in microbiology for testing such diverse samples as various bodily discharges to urine samples.

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Chikungunya virus (ChikV) is a single-stranded RNA alphavirus and a member of the Togaviridae family of viruses. The name Chikungunya is derived from the language of the Makonde ethnic groups in southeast Africa and means "that which bends" or "stooped walk." This is in reference to the hunched-over appearance of infected individuals due to the characteristically painful and incapacitating arthralgia caused by the virus. ChikV is endemic throughout Africa, India, and more recently the Caribbean islands. In 2014, the first case of autochthonous or local transmission in the United States occurred in Florida. 


Humans are the primary reservoir for ChikV and Aedes species mosquitos are the primary vectors for transmission. Unlike other mosquito-borne viruses such as West Nile virus (WNV) and Dengue, the majority of individuals who are exposed to ChikV become symptomatic, with the most severe manifestations observed at the extremes of age and in those with suppressed immunity. Once exposed to ChikV virus, individuals develop lasting immunity and protection from reinfection.


The incubation period, prior to development of symptoms, ranges on average from 3 to 7 days. Infected patients typically present with sudden onset high fever, incapacitating joint pain, and often a maculopapular rash lasting anywhere from 3 to 10 days. Notably, symptom relapse can occur in some individuals 2 to 3 months following resolution of initial symptoms. Currently, there are no licensed vaccines and treatment is strictly supportive care.

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This test looks for signs of chemical poisoning in your blood.


Cholinesterase is an enzyme that helps your nervous system work the way it should. Certain toxic chemicals in the environment can interfere with this enzyme and affect your nervous system.


These chemicals include organophosphates and carbamates. They are most often found in insecticides used in fields. They have also been used as chemical warfare agents. These chemicals can be found in common household insect sprays, too. They have been used in insecticides for more than 50 years.


If these chemicals get into your body, they can affect how you breathe and can cause general muscle weakness. They are called cholinesterase inhibitors. An overdose of these chemicals can be fatal.

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Chromium (Cr) exists in valence states ranging from 2(-) to 6(+). Hexavalent chromium (Cr[+6]) and trivalent chromium (Cr[+3]) are the 2 most prevalent forms. Cr(+6) is used in industry to make chromium alloys including stainless steel, pigments, and electroplated coatings. Cr(+6), a known carcinogen, is immediately converted to Cr(+3) upon exposure to biological tissues. Cr(+3) is the only chromium species found in biological specimens.


Serum Cr concentrations are likely to be increased above the reference range in patients with metallic joint prosthesis. Prosthetic devices produced by Depuy Company, Dow Corning, Howmedica, LCS, PCA, Osteonics, Richards Company, Tricon, and Whiteside typically are made of chromium, cobalt, and molybdenum. This list of products is incomplete, and these products change occasionally; see prosthesis product information for each device for composition details.

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Chromogranin A is a secretory protein, composed of 439 amino acids, found in the large dense-core vesicles of the neuroendocrine cells. It belongs to the family of granins that includes chromogranin B, chromogranin C, and secretogranin II.

Chromogranin A can be either measured in the serum or detected by immunohistochemistry in a tissue specimen.

Although it varies widely with the techniques used, the reference ranges for serum chromogranin A are as follows:

Less than 36.4 ng/mL (conventional unit) [1]

Less than 36.4 µg/L (system international)

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When pregnancy screening tests are abnormal; whenever signs of a chromosomal abnormality-associated disorder are present; as indicated to detect chromosomal abnormalities in a person and/or detect a specific abnormality in family members; sometimes when a person has leukemia, lymphoma, myeloma, myelodysplasia or another cancer and an acquired chromosome abnormality is suspected

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Cytogenetics of hematologic disorders attempts to define and interpret chromosomal aberrations that occur in neoplastic cells associated with leukemia, lymphoma and other hematologic malignancies. Chromosome abnormalities in cancer cells of patients with malignant hematologic disorders including acute and chronic myeloid and lymphoid leukemias, myelodysplastic and myeloproliferative disorders, lymphomas and unexplained anemias may correlate with the diagnosis, prognosis, treatment and etiology of disease.

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The Orton Materials Testing and Research Center is a full service, independent testing laboratory that specializes in measuring the behavior of ceramic materials.  The Testing Center performs physical properties tests, thermal analysis measurements, and provides consulting services on ceramics and other related materials.


Initially, MTRC was known as The Refractories Fellowship Laboratory, which was established in 1917 at the Mellon Institute in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It was relocated to The Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio in 1965 and renamed the Refractory Research Center. Since 1990, the Center has been operated by the Edward Orton Jr. Ceramic Foundation.

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Simmons citrate agar tests the ability of organisms to utilize citrate as a carbon source. Simmons citrate agar contains sodium citrate as the sole source of carbon, ammonium dihydrogen phosphate as the sole source of nitrogen, other nutrients, and the pH indicator bromthymol blue. This test is part of the IMViC tests and is helpful in differentiating the Enterobacteriaceae .


Organisms which can utilize citrate as their sole carbon source use the enzyme citrase or citrate-permease to transport the citrate into the cell.   These organisms also convert the ammonium dihydrogen phosphate to ammonia and ammonium hydroxide, which creates an alkaline environment in the medium.  At pH 7.5 or above, bromthymol blue turns royal blue. At a neutral pH, bromthymol blue is green, as evidenced by the uninoculated media.

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The diagnosis of pheochromocytoma/paraganglioma (PPGL) involves detection of elevated levels of plasma and/or 24-h urine catecholamines and/or their metabolites, including metanephrines. Although these tests are reasonably sensitive, false-positive results are often encountered. Follow-up tests can provide additional information to correctly diagnose PPGL. In this regard, the utility of the urinary clonidine suppression test (UCST) remains unknown.

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Normal clot retraction time is 0-2 hours. If the weight of the clot or the percent of extruded serum is used as the end measure, the result depends on the volume of the specimen used, which varies from laboratory to laboratory. [1]


The coagulation cascade is complex. Platelets play a major role to initiate the process and regulate it through biochemical and mechanical interactions. The 3 steps of this process for platelets are adhesion, aggregation, and finally, retraction. [2] The clot retraction study measures the time taken for a platelet plug to undergo this last step, which indicates overall platelet function.

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When you get a cut, your body jumps into action to keep things from getting out of hand. Cells called platelets get there first to slow the bleeding. Then, a bunch of proteins, called clotting factors, show up. They all fit together to form a solid mass -- a blood clot -- to stop the bleeding so you can start healing.


That’s what typically happens. But if you tend to bleed easily or you get clots when you shouldn’t, then you may have a problem with your clotting factors.


That’s when you might need a prothrombin time test, which measures how quickly your blood clots. It’s also called a PT, pro time, or INR test.

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This test measures Cobalt levels in the blood.  Cobalt is a naturally occurring element which contributes to good health in the right amount.  Overexposure to Cobalt due to ingestion, inhalation, or skin contact can be dangerous to a person's health.  Exposure typically occurs in industrial settings which use products containing cobalt.  Depending on the type of exposure, Cobalt poisoning can cause symptoms such as coughing, breathing problems, skin irritation, nerve damage and heart problems.


Coblat blood testing is typically ordered when a person believes they have been exposed, especially if they work in environments where cobalt is present.  Periodic testing to monitor blood Cobalt levels is recommended for anyone who is at risk of exposure even if they are not experiencing symptoms.

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This Immunoglobulin test measures levels of 3 classes of immunoglobulins in the blood.  Results will include measurements for Immunoglobulin A (IgA), Immunoglobulin G (IgG) and Immunoglobulin M (IgM).  Immunoglobulins, or antibodies, are an important part of the immune system which fight off bacteria, viruses and other foreign organisms. Measuring Immunoglobulin levels can help evaluate a person's immune system.


This test may be ordered when a person is suffering from chronic infections, especially of the lungs or gastrointestinal tract.  It can also help to diagnose various conditions resulting in excess or deficiencies in one or more types of antibodies.  Abnormal results will typically need to be followed up with further testing.

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Complement C3 is a blood test that measures the activity of a certain protein. This protein is part of the complement system. The complement system is a group of proteins that move freely through your bloodstream. The proteins work with your immune system and play a role in the development of inflammation.


The complement system protects the body from infections, dead cells and from foreign material. Rarely, people may inherit deficiency of some complement proteins. These people are prone to certain infections or autoimmune disorders.


There are nine major complement proteins. They are labeled C1 through C9. This test measures C3.

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This test measures the amount of C4 proteins in your blood. These proteins are part of your complement system, an important part of your immune system that helps kill disease-causing bacteria and viruses.


By measuring complement C4 levels, especially in how they compare with other parts of the complement system, your healthcare provider can diagnose and monitor treatment of certain diseases. One of the diseases that commonly involves abnormal C4 is systemic lupus erythematosus, or lupus, an autoimmune disorder.

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A complement test is a blood test that measures the activity of a group of proteins in the part of the blood called the serum. These proteins make up the complement system, which is part of the immune system.


The complement system helps antibodies fight off infections and destroy substances that are foreign to the body, such as viruses, bacteria, and other germs. It’s also activated when the body makes antibodies against its own tissues that it views as foreign. This happens in autoimmune diseases.


A complement test can monitor the progress of people undergoing treatment for autoimmune diseases, such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The test can measure how advanced these diseases are based on the activity of the complement protein in the blood. It can also gauge the effectiveness of ongoing treatments for autoimmune disorders and diagnose some cancers and infectious diseases.


There are nine major complement proteins. They’re labeled C1 through C9. A total complement measurement checks the function of your complement system by gauging the total amount of complement protein in your blood.


The complement test involves a simple blood draw. It requires no preparation and carries few risks. Your doctor will send the blood sample to a laboratory for analysis. Your doctor will receive the results.

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A blister is a small pocket of body fluid (lymph, serum, plasma, blood, or pus) within the upper layers of the skin, typically caused by forceful rubbing (friction), burning, freezing, chemical exposure or infection. Most blisters are filled with a clear fluid, either serum or plasma.[1] However, blisters can be filled with blood (known as "blood blisters") or with pus (if they become infected).

The word "blister" entered English in the 14th century. It came from the Middle Dutch "bluyster" and was a modification of the Old French "blostre", which meant a leprous nodule—a rise in the skin due to leprosy. In dermatology today, the words vesicle and bulla refer to blisters of smaller or greater size, respectively.

To heal properly, a blister should not be popped unless medically necessary. If popped, the excess skin should not be removed because the skin underneath needs that top layer to heal properly.

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The direct antiglobulin test (DAT) looks for antibodies attached to red blood cells (RBCs) circulating in the bloodstream. The test may help to detect or identify conditions in which antibodies become attached to RBCs, causing them to break apart (hemolyze).


RBCs have structures on their surfaces called antigens. Each person has their own individual set of RBC antigens, determined by inheritance from their parents. The major antigens or surface identifiers on human RBCs are the O, A, and B antigens, and a person's blood is grouped into an A, B, AB, or O blood type according to the presence or absence of these antigens. Another important surface antigen is the D antigen in the Rh blood group system. If it is present on someone's red blood cells, that person's blood type is Rh+ (positive); if it is absent, the blood is type Rh- (negative). (For more on these antigens, see the article on Blood Typing.) In addition, there are many other types of RBC antigens that make up lesser known but still clinically significant blood groups, such as Kell, Duffy, and Kidd

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An indirect Coombs' test determines whether there are antibodies to the Rh factor in the mother’s blood.


A normal (negative) result means that the mother has not developed antibodies against the fetus's blood. A negative Coombs' test indicates that the fetus is not presently in danger from problems relating to Rh incompatibility.

An abnormal (positive) result means that the mother has developed antibodies to the fetal red blood cells and is sensitized. However, a positive Coombs' test only indicates that an Rh-positive fetus has a possibility of being harmed. A positive test cannot indicate the amount of fetal harm that has occurred or is likely to occur.

If test results show that antibody amounts are increasing during pregnancy, the fetus may be at greater risk of harm.


A fetus who is Rh-negative will not be harmed, even if the mother is sensitized.

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Copper is an essential mineral that the body incorporates into enzymes. These enzymes play a role in the regulation of iron metabolism, formation of connective tissue, energy production at the cellular level, the production of melanin (the pigment that produces skin color), and the function of the nervous system. This test measures the amount of copper in the blood, urine, or liver (hepatic).


Copper is found in many foods including nuts, chocolate, mushrooms, shellfish, whole grains, dried fruits, and liver. Drinking water may acquire copper as it flows through copper pipes, and food may acquire it when people cook or serve food in copper dishes. Normally, the body absorbs copper from food or liquids in the intestines, converts it to a non-toxic form by binding it to a protein, and transports it to the liver. The liver stores some of the copper and binds most of the rest to another protein called apoceruloplasmin to produce the enzyme ceruloplasmin. About 95% of the copper in the blood is bound to ceruloplasmin, and most of the rest is bound to other proteins such as albumin. Only a small amount is normally present in the blood in a free (unbound) state. The liver eliminates excess copper into the bile and it is removed from the body in the stool. Some copper is also eliminated in the urine.


Both excess and deficiency of copper are rare. Wilson disease, a rare inherited disorder, can lead to excess storage of copper in the liver, brain, and other organs. Copper excess (toxicity) can also occur when a person is exposed to and absorbs large amounts over a short period of time (acute exposure) or various amounts over a long period (chronic exposure).


Copper deficiency may occasionally occur in people who have conditions associated with severe malabsorption, such as cystic fibrosis and celiac disease, and in infants exclusively fed cow-milk formulas.


A rare X-linked genetic condition called Menkes kinky hair syndrome leads to copper deficiency in the brain and liver of affected infants. The disease, which affects primarily males, is associated with seizures, delayed development, abnormal artery development in the brain, and unusual gray brittle kinky hair.

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Corticosterone is a steroid hormone and a precursor molecule for aldosterone. It is produced from deoxycorticosterone, further converted to 18-hydroxy corticosterone and, finally, to aldosterone in the mineralocorticoid pathway.


The adrenal glands, ovaries, testes, and placenta produce steroid hormones, which can be subdivided into 3 major groups: mineral corticoids, glucocorticoids, and sex steroids. Synthesis proceeds from cholesterol along 3 parallel pathways, corresponding to these 3 major groups of steroids, through successive side-chain cleavage and hydroxylation reactions. At various levels of each pathway, intermediate products can move into the respective adjacent pathways via additional, enzymatically catalyzed reactions (see Steroid Pathways in Special Instructions).


Corticosterone is the first intermediate in the corticoid pathway with significant mineral corticoid activity. Its synthesis from 11-deoxycorticosterone is catalyzed by 11 beta-hydroxylase 2 (CYP11B2) or by 11 beta-hydroxylase 1 (CYP11B1). Corticosterone is in turn converted to 18-hydroxycorticosterone and finally to aldosterone, the most active mineral corticoid. Both of these reactions are catalyzed by CYP11B2, which, unlike its sister enzyme CYP11B1, also possesses 18-hydroxylase and 18-methyloxidase (also known as aldosterone synthase) activity.


The major diagnostic utility of measurements of steroid synthesis intermediates lies in the diagnosis of disorders of steroid synthesis, in particular congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). All types of CAH are associated with cortisol deficiency with the exception of CYP11B2 deficiency and isolated impairments of the 17-lyase activity of CYP17A1 (this enzyme also has 17 alpha-hydroxylase activity). In cases of severe illness or trauma, CAH predisposes patients to poor recovery or death. Patients with the most common form of CAH (21-hydroxylase deficiency, >90% of cases), with the third most common form of CAH (3-beta-steroid dehydrogenase deficiency, <3% of cases) and those with the extremely rare StAR (steroidogenic acute regulatory protein) or 20,22 desmolase deficiencies might also suffer mineral corticoid deficiency, as the enzyme blocks in these disorders are proximal to potent mineral corticoids. These patients might suffer salt-wasting crises in infancy. By contrast, patients with the second most common form of CAH, 11-hydroxylase deficiency (<5% of cases) are normotensive or hypertensive, as the block affects either CYP11B1 or CYP11B2, but rarely both, thus ensuring that at least corticosterone is still produced. In addition, patients with all forms of CAH might suffer the effects of substrate accumulation proximal to the enzyme block. In the 3 most common forms of CAH, the accumulating precursors spill over into the sex steroid pathway, resulting in virilization of females or, in milder cases, hirsutism, polycystic ovarian syndrome or infertility, as well as in possible premature adrenarche and pubarche in both genders.

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Blood typing is a screening test to determine blood groups and Rh antigen for blood transfusion and pregnancy. The four blood groups A, B, O, and AB are determined by the presence of antigens A and B or their absence (O) on a patient's red blood cells. In addition to ABO grouping, most immunohematology testing includes evaluation of Rh typing tests for Rh(D) antigen. Blood cells that express Rh(D) antigen are Rh positive. Red blood cells found lacking Rh(D) are considered Rh negative. Rh typing is also important during pregnancy because of the potential for mother and fetus Rh incompatiblity. If the mother is Rh negative but the father is Rh positive, the fetus may be positive for the Rh antigen. As a result, the mother’s body could develop antibodies against the Rh antigen. These antibodies may cross the placenta and cause destruction of the baby’s red blood cells, resulting in a condition known as hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn.


Blood typing is performed by agglutination testing. The patient's red cells are tested with anti-A and anti-B antibodies for the presence or absence of agglutination (forward type, aka cell type), and patient's serum or plasma is tested against known A and B cells (reverse type, aka serum type, aka back type). Rh typing is done by testing patient red blood cells with anti-D antibody.


Transfusion of blood components of the correct blood type is necessary in order to prevent an adverse immunologic reaction. These reactions can range from very mild and sub-clinical to very severe or fatal, depending upon the components involved and condition of the recipient. Therefore, accurate assessment of both blood component and recipient ABO and Rh status is mandatory. The results of this testing will determine what blood group types a recipient may receive safely. For plasma components such as fresh frozen plasma (FFP) and platelets, it is important that the plasma be compatible with the recipient's red blood cells. This is always true for FFP which must be transfused in adequate volume to replace essential components in the recipient. For platelets, they can be concentrated if the ABO types are incompatible such that the amount of plasma given to the recipient is reduced to a minimum and the resulting hemolysis, if any, is reduced accordingly.

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Transcortin, also known as corticosteroid-binding globulin (CBG) or serpin A6 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SERPINA6 gene. It is an alpha-globulin.

This gene encodes an alpha-globulin protein with corticosteroid-binding properties. This is the major transport protein for glucocorticoids and progestins in the blood of most vertebrates. The gene localizes to a chromosomal region containing several closely related serine protease inhibitors (serpins) which have evolved by duplication events.


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Coxsackie viruses are enteroviruses belonging to the Picornavirus family, which is comprised of strains A and B as well as various serotypes A1-22, 24, and B1-6. Following incubation, a variety of well known diseases can manifest themselves within the host. Coxsackie A is commonly associated with hand, foot, and mouth disease, which primarily affects children younger than 10 years of age. In rare cases, Coxsackie infections may produce mild or subclinical symptoms, yet most infections trigger the onset of flu-like ailments but may include symptoms of other diseases along the lines of pneumonia, hepatitis, and meningitis.
A positive test result does not necessarily indicate current or recent infection as antibodies to Coxsackie species can be detected in uninfected individuals due to moderate passive exposure to infected hosts. It is, therefore, crucial that results from all Coxsackie A serologies correlate with the clinical history of the patient and all other data available to the physician. Samples collected at the early stage of infection (primarily in children) may not yield detectable antibodies. If a recent infection is suspected, a second specimen should be collected 10 to 20 days following the initial collection and tested.
Coxsackie A viruses are mainly associated with human hand, foot and mouth disease.
Coxsackie Bviruses can cause mild signs and symptoms, similar to a "cold", but these viruses also can lead to more serious diseases, including myocarditis (inflammation of the heart); pericarditis (inflammation of the sac lining the heart); meningitis (inflammation of the membranes that line the brain and spinal cord); and pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas).
Infection is common but most frequent in summer and autumn in temperate climates but all year round in the tropics. They tend to affect those under 16 but adults are also affected. Spread is usually from the faeco-oral route with an incubation period of 2 to 6 days.

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Creatine Kinase Total test is performed on a sample of blood to measure level of Creatine Kinase in blood.It is performed to confirm Myocardial Infraction, Myocardial Injury and Skeletal Muscle Injury and also during treatment and after treatment of Myocardial Infraction, Myocardial Injury and Skeletal Muscle Injury.

Also known as

CK - Total Spectrophotometric method Blood, CPK - Total, Creatine Phosphokinase Total Spectrophotometric method Blood, Serum CPK Test, CK - Total, Creatine Kinase Total, Creatine Phosphokinase Total, Serum CPK.

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Creatine kinase-MB (CK-MB) is a form of an enzyme found primarily in heart muscle cells. This test measures CK-MB in the blood.


CK-MB is one of three forms (isoenzymes) of the enzyme creatine kinase (CK). These isoenzymes include:


CK-MM (found in skeletal muscles and the heart)

CK-MB (found mostly in the heart, but small amounts found in skeletal muscles)

CK-BB (found mostly in the brain and smooth muscle, such as the intestines and uterus)

CK is released from muscle cells and is detectable in the blood whenever there is muscle damage. The small amount of CK that is normally in the blood is primarily CK-MM. CK-BB almost never gets into the blood, and CK-MB will typically only be present in significant amounts when the heart is damaged. A CK test measures the total level but does not distinguish between the three isoenzymes. When there is an increased amount of CK present in the blood, the CK-MB test can be used to determine whether it is due to heart damage or is more likely to be related to skeletal muscle injury.

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Creatinine is a waste product produced by muscles from the breakdown of a compound called creatine. Creatinine is removed from the body by the kidneys, which filter almost all of it from the blood and release it into the urine. This test measures the amount of creatinine in the blood and/or urine.


Creatine is part of the cycle that produces energy needed to contract muscles. Both creatine and creatinine are produced by the body at a relatively constant rate. Since almost all creatinine is filtered from the blood by the kidneys and released into the urine, blood levels are usually a good indicator of how well the kidneys are working. The quantity produced depends on the size of the person and their muscle mass. For this reason, creatinine concentrations will be slightly higher in men than in women and children.


Results from a blood creatinine test may be used in combination with results from other tests, such as a 24-hour urine creatinine test, to perform calculations that are used to evaluate kidney function. See the "How is it used?" section for more on these.

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Reflexology, also known as zone therapy, is an alternative medicine involving application of pressure to the feet and hands with specific thumb, finger, and hand techniques without the use of oil or lotion. It is based on a pseudoscientific[1] system of zones and reflex areas that purportedly reflect an image of the body on the feet and hands, with the premise that such work effects a physical change to the body.


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Creatinine is a waste product produced by muscles from the breakdown of a compound called creatine. Creatinine is filtered from the blood by the kidneys and released into the urine. A creatinine clearance test measures creatinine levels in both a sample of blood and a sample of urine from a 24-hour urine collection. The results are used to calculate the amount of creatinine that has been cleared from the blood and passed into the urine. This calculation allows for a general evaluation of the amount of blood that is being filtered by the kidneys in a 24-hour time period.


The amount of creatinine produced in the body is dependent on muscle mass and is relatively constant for an individual. The amount of creatinine removed from the blood depends on both the filtering ability of the kidneys and the rate at which blood is carried to the kidneys.


The amount of blood filtered per minute by the kidneys is known as the glomerular filtration rate (GFR). If the kidneys are damaged or diseased, or if blood circulation is slowed, then less creatinine will be removed from the blood and released into the urine and the GFR will be decreased.


GFR is difficult to measure directly. Therefore, it is recommended to estimate GFR by measuring the creatinine level in the blood and using the results in an equation to calculate estimated GFR. The calculation that takes into account several factors, such as age, gender and race of the person tested (see the article on Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate).


Another, less common way to estimate GFR is to calculate creatinine clearance. There are several versions of the creatinine clearance calculation. All of them include the measurement of the amount of creatinine in a blood sample collected just before or after the urine collection, the amount of creatinine in a 24-hour urine sample, and the 24-hour urine volume. Since the amount of creatinine produced depends on muscle mass, some calculations also use a correction factor that takes into account a person's body surface area (using their height and weight).

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C-reactive protein (CRP) is an acute phase reactant, a protein made by the liver and released into the blood within a few hours after tissue injury, the start of an infection, or other cause of inflammation. Markedly increased levels are observed, for example, after trauma or a heart attack, with active or uncontrolled autoimmune disorders, and with serious bacterial infections like sepsis. The level of CRP can jump as much as a thousand-fold in response to inflammatory conditions, and its rise in the blood can precede pain, fever, or other clinical indicators. The test measures the amount of CRP in the blood and can be valuable in detecting inflammation due to acute conditions or in monitoring disease activity in chronic conditions.


The CRP test is not diagnostic, but it provides information to a health practitioner as to whether inflammation is present. This information can be used in conjunction with other factors such as signs and symptoms, physical exam, and other tests to determine if someone has an acute inflammatory condition or is experiencing a flare-up of a chronic inflammatory disease. The health practitioner may then follow up with further testing and treatment.


This standard CRP test is not to be confused with an hs-CRP test. These are two different tests that measure CRP and each test measures a different range of CRP level in the blood for different purposes:


The standard CRP test measures markedly high levels of the protein to detect diseases that cause significant inflammation. It measures CRP in the range from 10 to 1000 mg/L.

The hs-CRP test accurately detects lower levels of the protein than the standard CRP test and is used to evaluate individuals for risk of cardiovascular disease. It measures CRP in the range from 0.5 to 10 mg/L.

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Cryptococcosis is an invasive fungal infection caused by Cryptococcus neoformans or C gattii. C neoformans has been isolated from several sites in nature, particularly weathered pigeon droppings. C gatti was previously only associated with tropical and subtropical regions; however, more recently this organism has also been found to be endemic in British Columbia and among the Pacific Northwest United States, and is associated with several different trees species.

Infection is usually acquired via the pulmonary route. Patients are often unaware of any exposure history. Approximately half of the patients with symptomatic disease have a predisposing immunosuppressive condition such as AIDS, steroid therapy, lymphoma, or sarcoidosis. Symptoms may include fever, headache, dizziness, ataxia, somnolence, and cough. While the majority of C neoformans infections occur in immunocompromised patient populations, C gattii is has a higher predilection for infection of healthy hosts.(1,2)

In addition to the lungs, cryptococcal infections frequently involve the central nervous system (CNS), particularly in patients infected with HIV. Mortality among patients with CNS cryptococcosis may approach 25% despite antibiotic therapy. Untreated CNS cryptococcosis is invariably fatal. Disseminated disease may affect any organ system and usually occurs in immunosuppressed individuals.

The presence of cryptococcal antigen in any body fluid (serum or cerebrospinal fluid) is indicative of cryptococcosis. Specimens that are positive by the lateral flow assay screen are automatically repeated with the same method utilizing dilutions in order to generate a titer value.

Disseminated infection is usually accompanied by a positive serum test.

Higher Cryptococcus antigen titers appear to correlate with more severe infections. Declining titers may indicate regression of infection. However, monitoring titers to cryptococcal antigen should not be used as a test of cure or to guide treatment decisions, as low level titers may persist for extended periods of time following appropriate therapy and the resolution of infection.(3)

A negative result does not preclude diagnosis of cryptococcosis, particularly if only a single specimen has been tested and the patient shows symptoms consistent with cryptococcosis. 

A positive result is indicative of cryptococcosis, however all test results should be reviewed in light of other clinical findings.

Testing should not be performed as a screening procedure for the general populations and should only be performed when clinical evidence suggests the diagnosis of cryptococcal disease.

Testing hemolyzed serum specimens may lead to false-negative results due to the high background color on the lateral flow assay strip.

Although rare, extremely high concentrations of cryptococcal antigen can result in weak test lines and in extreme instances, yield negative test results.



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Cryptococcosis is an invasive fungal infection caused by Cryptococcus neoformans or Cryptococcus gattii. C. neoformans has been isolated from several sites in nature, particularly weathered pigeon droppings. C. gatti was previously only associated with tropical and subtropical regions; however, more recently this organism has also been found to be endemic in British Columbia and among the pacific northwest United States, and is associated with several different trees species.


Infection is usually acquired via the pulmonary route. Patients are often unaware of any exposure history. Approximately half of the patients with symptomatic disease have a predisposing immunosuppressive condition such as AIDS, steroid therapy, lymphoma, or sarcoidosis. Symptoms may include fever, headache, dizziness, ataxia, somnolence, and cough. While the majority of C. neoformans infections occur in immunocompromised patient populations, C.gattii is has a higher predilection for infection of healthy hosts.(1,2)


In addition to the lungs, cryptococcal infections frequently involve the central nervous system (CNS), particularly in patients infected with HIV. Mortality among patients with CNS cryptococcosis may approach 25% despite antibiotic therapy. Untreated CNS cryptococcosis is invariably fatal. Disseminated disease may affect any organ system and usually occurs in immunosuppressed individuals.

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Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis is a set of laboratory tests that examine a sample of the fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord. This fluid is an ultrafiltrate of plasma. It is clear and colorless. It contains glucose, electrolytes, amino acids, and other small molecules found in plasma, but has very little protein and few cells. CSF protects the central nervous system from injury, cushions it from the surrounding bone structure, provides it with nutrients, and removes waste products by returning them to the blood. CSF is withdrawn from the subarachnoid space through a needle by a procedure called a lumbar puncture or spinal tap. CSF analysis includes tests in clinical chemistry, hematology, immunology, and microbiology. Usually three or four tubes are collected. The first tube is used for chemical and/or serological analysis and the last two tubes are used for hematology and microbiology tests. This reduces the chances of a falsely elevated white cell count caused by a traumatic tap (bleeding into the subarachnoid space at the puncture site), and contamination of the bacterial culture by skin germs or flora.




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Blood typing is a screening test to determine blood groups and Rh antigen for blood transfusion and pregnancy. The four blood groups A, B, O, and AB are determined by the presence of antigens A and B or their absence (O) on a patient's red blood cells. In addition to ABO grouping, most immunohematology testing includes evaluation of Rh typing tests for Rh(D) antigen. Blood cells that express Rh(D) antigen are Rh positive. Red blood cells found lacking Rh(D) are considered Rh negative. Rh typing is also important during pregnancy because of the potential for mother and fetus Rh incompatiblity. If the mother is Rh negative but the father is Rh positive, the fetus may be positive for the Rh antigen. As a result, the mother’s body could develop antibodies against the Rh antigen. These antibodies may cross the placenta and cause destruction of the baby’s red blood cells, resulting in a condition known as hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn.


Blood typing is performed by agglutination testing. The patient's red cells are tested with anti-A and anti-B antibodies for the presence or absence of agglutination (forward type, aka cell type), and patient's serum or plasma is tested against known A and B cells (reverse type, aka serum type, aka back type). Rh typing is done by testing patient red blood cells with anti-D antibody.


Transfusion of blood components of the correct blood type is necessary in order to prevent an adverse immunologic reaction. These reactions can range from very mild and sub-clinical to very severe or fatal, depending upon the components involved and condition of the recipient. Therefore, accurate assessment of both blood component and recipient ABO and Rh status is mandatory. The results of this testing will determine what blood group types a recipient may receive safely. For plasma components such as fresh frozen plasma (FFP) and platelets, it is important that the plasma be compatible with the recipient's red blood cells. This is always true for FFP which must be transfused in adequate volume to replace essential components in the recipient. For platelets, they can be concentrated if the ABO types are incompatible such that the amount of plasma given to the recipient is reduced to a minimum and the resulting hemolysis, if any, is reduced accordingly.

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Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is an inherited condition that mainly affects the lungs, pancreas, and sweat glands. It causes the production of thick, sticky mucus that leads to recurrent respiratory infections and blocks the release of pancreatic enzymes, inhibiting the digestion of protein and fat.


CF is one of the most common recessive genetic disorders in the U.S. A recessive disorder occurs when each of the two copies of a gene (one inherited from each parent) is abnormal. According to Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, it is estimated that 30,000 Americans are living with CF and approximately 1,000 new cases are diagnosed every year. Most people with CF are diagnosed in early childhood.


CF is caused by mutations (disease-causing variations in the DNA) in a gene called CFTR located on chromosome seven. More than 2,000 different CF mutations have been identified so far, but only a few are common. The majority of cystic fibrosis cases in the U.S. are caused by a mutation called deltaF508 (F508).


The CFTR gene is responsible for the normal production of a protein called cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR). In CF, the CFTR protein may be dysfunctional or totally absent. With dysfunctional or absent CFTR, chloride does not move out of the ducts into surrounding fluid, resulting in the production of thick, sticky mucus. Since CFTR levels are usually highest in the epithelial cells lining the internal surfaces of the bronchi of the lungs, pancreas, sweat glands, salivary glands, intestine, and reproductive organs, these are the areas most affected by CF.


Most people with CF develop respiratory and pancreatic symptoms early in life, although the severity of signs and symptoms varies from person to person, even in those carrying the exact same mutations. The majority of adult men with CF are also infertile due to missing or underdeveloped vas deferens, the tubules that transport sperm from the testicles.


An individual with one normal CFTR gene copy and one abnormal gene copy is a CF carrier. Carriers do not generally have symptoms, but they may pass a copy of their abnormal gene on to their children. Both biological parents must either be carriers or have CF in order for their child to have CF.


The risk associated with carrying an abnormal CF gene can be generally associated with a person's ethnic background. Caucasians from Northern Europe and Ashkenazi Jews have the highest incidence of CF with about 1 in 25 individuals being CF carriers.

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Cysticercosis is caused by infection with the larval form (cysticercus) of the pork tapeworm Taenia solium. Clinical manifestations of cysticercosis most commonly result from the lodging of cysticerci in brain and neural tissue. Common symptoms of neurocysticercosis include seizures and convulsions. Antibodies from other parasitic infections, particularly echinococcosis, may crossreact in the cysticercus IgG ELISA. Confirmation of positive ELISA results by the Cysticercosis IgG antibody western blot (test code 34279X) is recommended.



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Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a common virus that occurs widely throughout the population but rarely causes symptoms. In the United States, as many as 50-85% of adults have been infected with CMV. Most people are infected as children or as young adults and do not experience any significant symptoms or health problems.


CMV testing involves either a measurement of CMV antibodies, immune proteins produced in response to CMV exposure, or the detection of the virus itself. The virus can be identified during an active infection by culturing CMV or by detecting the virus's genetic material (its DNA) in a fluid or tissue sample.


CMV is found in many body fluids during an active infection, including saliva, urine, blood, breast milk, semen, vaginal secretions, and cerebrospinal fluid. It is easily transmitted to others through close physical contact or by contact with infected objects, such as diapers or toys. After the initial "primary" infection has resolved, CMV becomes dormant or latent, like other members of the herpes family. Cytomegalovirus remains in a person for the rest of the person's life without causing any symptoms unless the person's immune system is significantly weakened. If this happens, the virus can reactivate.


CMV can cause notable health problems in three situations:


In young adults, primary CMV infection may cause a flu-like or mononucleosis-type illness. This condition, which causes symptoms such as extreme fatigue, fever, chills, body aches and/or headaches, usually resolves within a few weeks. 

In infants, primary CMV infection may cause serious physical and developmental problems. This occurs when a woman is infected for the first time (primary infection) during pregnancy and then passes the infection to her developing baby across the placenta. Most newborns (about 90%) who are infected appear healthy at birth but may develop hearing or vision problems, pneumonia, seizures, and/or delayed mental development a few months later. A few babies may be stillborn, while others may have symptoms at birth such as jaundice, anemia, an enlarged spleen or liver, and a small head.

In those with weakened immune systems, CMV could cause serious illness and death. This includes those with HIV/AIDS, those who have had organ or bone marrow transplants, and those undergoing chemotherapy treatment for cancer. People with compromised immune systems who become infected for the first time (primary infection) might experience the most severe symptoms and their CMV infection may remain active. Those who have been exposed to CMV previously may reactivate their infection. This could affect their eyes (causing inflammation of the retina, which can lead to blindness), digestive tract (causing bloody diarrhea and abdominal pain), lungs (causing pneumonia with a non-productive cough and shortness of breath), and brain (causing encephalitis). There can also be spleen and liver involvement, and those who have had organ or bone marrow transplants may experience some degree of rejection. Active CMV also further depresses the immune system, allowing other secondary infections such as fungal infections, to occur.

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Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is the principal human C-19 steroid. DHEA has very low androgenic potency, but serves as the major direct or indirect precursor for most sex steroids. DHEA is secreted by the adrenal gland and production is at least partly controlled by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). The bulk of DHEA is secreted as a 3-sulfoconjugate dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS). Both hormones are albumin bound, but DHEAS binding is much tighter. As a result, circulating concentrations of DHEAS are much higher (>100-fold) compared to DHEA. In most clinical situations, DHEA and DHEAS results can be used interchangeably. In gonads and several other tissues, most notably skin, steroid sulfatases can convert DHEAS back to DHEA, which can then be metabolized to stronger androgens and to estrogens.


 


During pregnancy, DHEA/DHEAS and their 16-hydroxylated metabolites are secreted by the fetal adrenal gland in large quantities. They serve as precursors for placental production of the dominant pregnancy estrogen, estriol. Within weeks after birth, DHEA/DHEAS levels fall by 80% or more and remain low until the onset of adrenarche at age 7 or 8 in girls and age 8 or 9 in boys. Adrenarche is a poorly understood phenomenon, peculiar to higher primates, that is characterized by a gradual rise in adrenal androgen production. It precedes puberty, but is not casually linked to it. Early adrenarche is not associated with early puberty or with any reduction in final height or overt androgenization. However, girls with early adrenarche may be at increased risk of polycystic ovarian syndrome as adults and some boys may develop early penile enlargement.


 


Following adrenarche, DHEA/DHEAS levels increase until the age of 20 to a maximum roughly comparable to that observed at birth. Levels then decline over the next 40 to 60 years to around 20% of peak levels. The clinical significance of this age-related drop is unknown and trials of DHEA/DHEAS replacement in the elderly have not produced convincing benefits. However, in young and old patients with primary adrenal failure, the addition of DHEA/DHEAS to corticosteroid replacement has been shown in some studies to improve mood, energy, and sex drive.

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There's a whiff of something in the air that's distinctly... foot. The Is that me?! panic sets in. Many of us have been in your, ahem, shoes. The odd case of bromodosis—yep, foot odor even has its own very official name—is usually nothing to worry about. Here are a few possible reasons your tootsies stink to high heaven and what to do about the stench.

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Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) is a male sex hormone (androgen) that is present in both men and women. This test measures the level of DHEAS in the blood.


DHEAS:


Plays a role in developing male secondary sexual characteristics at puberty

Can be converted by the body into more potent androgens, such as testosterone and androstenedione

Can be converted into the female hormone estrogen

 

DHEAS is produced almost exclusively by the adrenal glands, with smaller amounts being produced by a woman's ovaries and a man's testicles.


It is useful as a marker for adrenal gland function. Adrenal tumors (cancerous and non-cancerous) and adrenal hyperplasia can lead to the overproduction of DHEAS. Rarely, an ovarian tumor may produce DHEAS.

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Dengue fever is a viral infection transmitted to humans by mosquitoes that live in tropical and subtropical climates and carry the virus. Blood testing detects the dengue virus or antibodies produced in response to dengue infection.


According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), dengue infections have been reported in more than 100 countries from parts of Africa, the Americas, the Caribbean, the Eastern Mediterranean, Southeast Asia, and the Western Pacific. It is a fast emerging infectious disease, according to the World Health Organization (WHO), with an increasing number of cases and countries affected throughout the world. The actual number is not known because about 75% of cases are asymptomatic, but a recent estimate put the number of annual dengue infections as high as 390 million. Approximately 50 to 100 million symptomatic cases occur annually worldwide.


In the U.S., the majority of dengue cases occur in travelers returning from areas where dengue is endemic. Most dengue cases in U.S. citizens occur in people who live in Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Samoa and Guam. Outbreaks where a large number of cases occur in a defined area are rare in the U.S. In recent years, there have been small outbreaks in Texas and Hawaii and a few cases diagnosed in southern Florida.

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The overnight dexamethasone suppression test checks to see how taking a steroid medicine called dexamethasone changes the levels of the hormone cortisol in the blood. This test checks for a condition in which large amounts of cortisol are produced by the adrenal glands (Cushing's syndrome).


Normally, when the pituitary gland camera.gif makes less adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), the adrenal glands camera.gif make less cortisol. Dexamethasone, which is like cortisol, lowers the amount of ACTH released by the pituitary gland. This in turn lowers the amount of cortisol released by the adrenal glands.


After a dose of dexamethasone, cortisol levels often stay very high in people who have Cushing's syndrome. Sometimes other conditions can keep cortisol levels high during this test. Examples include major depression, alcoholism, stress, obesity, kidney failure, pregnancy, and uncontrolled diabetes.


The night before the blood test, you will take a dexamethasone pill. The next morning, the cortisol level in your blood will be measured. If your cortisol level stays high, Cushing's syndrome may be the cause.


An ACTH test is sometimes done at the same time as the cortisol test.

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A dexamethasone suppression test is primarily used to help diagnose Cushing syndrome. Cushing syndrome indicates that you have an abnormally high level of cortisol. Cortisol is a steroid hormone produced by the body during high levels of stress. (Abnormally low cortisol levels can be a sign of Addison’s disease, which is not diagnosed by this test.)

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Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) is a potent form of testosterone required for male sexual development. However, aging men tend to have higher levels of DHT that could lead to problems such as hair loss and prostate dysfunction.


Additionally, men and women on testosterone therapy should always check their testosterone blood level to make sure that it stays within an optimal range. Remember, women with higher levels of DHT can also lose their hair.

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A DLC blood test is one which measures the percentage of every single type of WBCs in the body. There are five types of normal WBCs in the blood. Their respective normal range in adults is as follows:


Neutrophils or Polymorphs: 40 - 60%


Lymphocytes (B and T cells): 20 - 40%


Monocytes: 2 - 8%


Eosinophils: 1 - 4%


Basophils: 0.5 - 1%


Band or young neutrophils: 0 - 3%


Speaking on the relevance of TLC and DLC blood tests, our expert Dr Gita Prakash, says, "These are one of the most common blood tests that we do. It tells us if there is any fever, urine infection, cough, etc." 


She goes on to add, "TLC and DLC blood tests are tests done at a primary level for a patient, because they give you a basic idea about the kind of disease you are suffering from. It also gives you an idea if there is anything more serious. I would say that TLC and DLC are good tests to get done if you are suffering from any kind of problem." 


So, how often should one get a TLC and DLC test done? "Anyone who comes to me with a problem, TLC and DLC are the basic tests that I suggest them to get done. In the report, if TLC is high, it means that there is some kind of infection. If the TLC is lower than normal, it could be a typhoid, dengue, viral fever, etc. The same goes with DLC. So these tests tell you everything about the kind of illness you are looking at," says Dr. Gita while further mentioning that by correlating the symptoms with the test results, one can diagnose the particular disease  that a patient is suffering from.

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Drugs of abuse testing is the detection of one or more illegal and/or prescribed substances in the urine, blood, saliva, hair, or sweat. Testing detects substances not normally found in the body, with the exception of some hormones and steroids measured as part of sports testing.


Drug abuse testing usually involves an initial screening test followed by a second test that identifies and/or confirms the presence of a drug or drugs. Most laboratories use commercially available tests that have been developed and optimized to screen urine for the "major drugs of abuse."


For most drugs of abuse testing, laboratories compare results of initial screening with a predetermined cut-off. Anything below that cut-off is considered negative; anything above is considered a positive screening result. In addition, labs might perform testing for masking agents (adulterants). These may either interfere with testing or dilute a urine sample.


Among drugs of abuse, each class of drug may contain a variety of chemically similar substances. Legal substances that are chemically similar to illegal ones can produce a positive screening result. Positive screening tests are considered presumptive. Therefore, screening tests that are positive for one or more classes of drugs are frequently confirmed with a secondary test that identifies the exact substance present using a very sensitive and specific method, such as gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) or liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS).

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Culture and Sensitivity Aerobic test is performed on a sample of ear swab to measure the level of Culture of the pathogenic organism in the ear swab.It is performed to confirm Ear infection and also during the treatment and after the treatment of Ear infection.

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Electrolytes are minerals that are found in body tissues and blood in the form of dissolved salts. As electrically charged particles, electrolytes help move nutrients into and wastes out of the body's cells, maintain a healthy water balance, and help stabilize the body's acid/base (pH) level.


The electrolyte panel measures the blood levels of the main electrolytes in the body: sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), chloride (Cl-), and bicarbonate (HCO3-; sometimes reported as total CO2).


A person's diet provides sodium, potassium, and chloride. The kidneys help maintain proper levels by reabsorption or by elimination into the urine. The lungs provide oxygen and regulate CO2. The CO2 is produced by the body and is in balance with bicarbonate. The overall balance of these chemicals is an indication of the functional well-being of several basic body functions. They are important in maintaining a wide range of body functions, including cardiac and skeletal muscle contraction and nerve impulse conduction.


Any disease or condition that affects the amount of fluid in the body, such as dehydration, or affects the lungs, kidneys, metabolism, or breathing has the potential to cause a fluid, electrolyte, or pH imbalance (acidosis or alkalosis). Normal pH must be maintained within a narrow range of 7.35-7.45 and electrolytes must be in balance to ensure the proper functioning of metabolic processes and the delivery of the right amount of oxygen to tissues. (For more on this, see the condition article on Acidosis and Alkalosis and also on Dehydration.)

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Circulating IgA endomysial antibodies are present in 70% to 80% of patients with dermatitis herpetiformis or celiac disease, and in nearly all such patients who have high grade gluten-sensitive enteropathy and are not adhering to a gluten-free diet.


 


For your convenience, we recommend utilizing cascade testing for celiac disease. Cascade testing ensures that testing proceeds in an algorithmic fashion. The following cascades are available; select the appropriate one for your specific patient situation. Algorithms for the cascade tests are available in Special Instructions.


-CDCOM / Celiac Disease Comprehensive Cascade: complete testing including HLA DQ


-CDSP / Celiac Disease Serology Cascade: complete testing excluding HLA DQ


-CDGF / Celiac Disease Gluten-Free Cascade: for patients already adhering to a gluten-free diet

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Endothelin-1 (ET-1), a peptide of 21 amino acid residues, is the most potent vasoconstrictor substance known. Originally isolated from porcine aortic endothelial cells1, ET-1 is now known to be one of a family of three mammalian vasoactive peptides that also includes endothelin-2 (ET-2) and endothelin-3 (ET-3).2 These related peptides differ from ET-1 at the two and six amino acid residue positions, respectively. A fourth peptide, vasoactive intestinal contractor (VIC), is sometimes classified as rat ET-2.3

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The pemphigus   Pemphigus foliaceus  and pemphigoid   Skin: bullous pemphigoid  autoimmune skin diseases   Immune-mediated disease: overview   are mediated by autoantibodies that target antigens within the interkeratinocyte desmosomes (pemphigus) or the basement membrane zone hemidesmosomes (pemphigoid).

A range of laboratory methods may be used to demonstrate the presence of these autoantibodies. These tests have not been used widely in equine pemphigus or pemphigoid diseases and, in those report available, have shown variable sensitivity and specifity.

Autoantibodies may be detected either in situ(within lesional skin biopsies), or circulating with the serum of affected animals.

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Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a virus that typically causes a mild to moderate illness. Blood tests for Epstein-Barr virus detect antibodies to EBV in the blood and help establish a diagnosis of EBV infection.


Epstein-Barr virus causes an infection that is very common. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), most people in the United States are infected by EBV at some point in their lives. The virus is very contagious and easily passed from person to person. It is present in the saliva of infected individuals and can be spread through close contact such as kissing and through sharing utensils or cups.


After initial exposure to EBV, there is a period of several weeks before associated symptoms may appear, called the incubation period. During the acute primary infection, the virus multiplies in number. This is followed by a decrease in viral numbers and resolution of symptoms, but the virus never completely goes away. Latent EBV remains in the person's body for the rest of that person's life and may reactivate but usually causes few problems unless the person's immune system is significantly weakened.


Most people are infected by EBV in childhood and experience few or no symptoms. However, when the initial infection occurs in adolescence, it can cause infectious mononucleosis, commonly called mono, a condition associated with fatigue, fever, sore throat, swollen lymph nodes, an enlarged spleen, and sometimes an enlarged liver. These symptoms occur in about 25% of infected teens and young adults and usually resolve within a month or two.


People with mono are typically diagnosed by their symptoms and the findings from a complete blood count (CBC) and a mono test (which tests for a heterophile antibody). About 25% of those with mono do not produce heterophile antibodies and will have a negative mono test; this is especially true with children. Tests for EBV antibodies can be used to determine whether or not the symptoms these people are experiencing are due to a current infection with the EBV virus.


EBV is the most common cause of mono. According to the CDC, examples of other causes of mono include cytomegalovirus (CMV), hepatitis A, hepatitis B or hepatitis C, rubella, and toxoplasmosis. Sometimes, it can be important to distinguish EBV from these other illnesses. For instance, it may be important to diagnose the cause of symptoms of a viral illness in a pregnant woman. Testing can help to distinguish a primary EBV infection, which has not been shown to affect a developing baby, from a CMV, herpes simplex virus, or toxoplasmosis infection, as these illnesses can cause complications during the pregnancy and may harm the fetus.


It can also be important to rule out EBV infection and to look for other causes of the symptoms. Those with strep throat, an infection caused by group A streptococcus, for instance, need to be identified and treated with antibiotics. A person may have strep throat instead of mono or may have both conditions at the same time.


Several tests for different types and classes of EBV antibodies are available. The antibodies are proteins produced by the body in an immune response to several different Epstein-Barr virus antigens. During a primary EBV infection, the level of each of these EBV antibodies rises and falls at various times as the infection progresses. Measurement of these antibodies in the blood can aid in diagnosis and typically provides the healthcare practitioner with information about the stage of infection and whether it is a current, recent, or past infection.

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Receptors are specialized proteins on the surface of or within cells that recognize and bind to other substances. The binding typically has a specific effect on the cells. Many, but not all, breast cancer cells have receptors that bind to the hormones estrogen and progesterone. Breast cancer tumors with estrogen receptors (ER) and progesterone receptors (PR) depend on the hormones to grow and divide. ER and PR testing of breast tumor tissue determines if one or both types of receptors are present.


Knowing if a tumor depends on hormones to grow helps a health practitioner determine a person's risk of breast cancer recurrence and whether it can be treated with hormone therapy to block estrogen and progesterone. About two-thirds of breast cancer tissues are positive for both ER and PR.


In 2010, the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the College of American Pathologists (CAP) jointly published guidelines that recommend that all tumors from individuals with newly diagnosed invasive breast cancer be evaluated for estrogen and progesterone receptors. The guidelines also state that all recurrent breast cancers should be tested and that the option of testing should be provided for patients who have non-invasive breast cancer.

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Erythropoietin (EPO) is a hormone produced primarily by the kidneys. It plays a key role in the production of red blood cells (RBCs), which carry oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body. This test measures the amount of erythropoietin in the blood.


Erythropoietin is produced and released into the blood by the kidneys in response to low blood oxygen levels (hypoxemia). EPO is carried to the bone marrow, where it stimulates production of red blood cells. The hormone is active for a short period of time and then eliminated from the body in the urine.


The amount of erythropoietin released depends upon how low the oxygen level is and the ability of the kidneys to produce erythropoietin. Increased production and release of erythropoietin continues to occur until oxygen levels in the blood rise to normal or near normal concentrations, then production falls. The body uses this dynamic feedback system to help maintain sufficient oxygen levels and a relatively stable number of RBCs in the blood.


However, if a person's kidneys are damaged and do not produce sufficient erythropoietin, then too few RBCs are produced and the person typically becomes anemic. Similarly, if a person's bone marrow is unable to respond to the stimulation from EPO, then the person may become anemic. This can occur with some bone marrow disorders or with chronic diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis. (Read Anemia of Chronic Diseases to learn more.)


Individuals who have conditions that affect the amount of oxygen they breathe in, such as lung diseases, may produce more EPO to try to compensate for the low oxygen level. People who live at high altitudes may also have higher levels of EPO and so do chronic tobacco smokers.


If too much erythropoietin is produced, as occurs with some benign or malignant kidney tumors and with a variety of other cancers, too many RBCs may be produced (polycythemia or erythrocytosis). This can lead to an increase in the blood's thickness (viscosity) and sometimes to high blood pressure (hypertension), blood clots (thrombosis), heart attack, or stroke. Rarely, polycythemia is caused by a bone marrow disorder called polycythemia vera, not by increased erythropoietin.

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Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR or sed rate) is a test that indirectly measures the degree of inflammation present in the body. The test actually measures the rate of fall (sedimentation) of erythrocytes (red blood cells) in a sample of blood that has been placed into a tall, thin, vertical tube. Results are reported as the millimeters of clear fluid (plasma) that are present at the top portion of the tube after one hour.


When a sample of blood is placed in a tube, the red blood cells normally settle out relatively slowly, leaving little clear plasma. The red cells settle at a faster rate in the presence of an increased level of proteins, particularly proteins called acute phase reactants. The level of acute phase reactants such as C-reactive protein (CRP) and fibrinogen increases in the blood in response to inflammation.


Inflammation is part of the body's immune response. It can be acute, developing rapidly after trauma, injury or infection, for example, or can occur over an extended time (chronic) with conditions such as autoimmune diseases or cancer.


The ESR is not diagnostic; it is a non-specific test that may be elevated in a number of these different conditions. It provides general information about the presence or absence of an inflammatory condition.


There have been questions about the usefulness of the ESR in light of newer tests that have come into use that are more specific. However, ESR test is typically indicated for the diagnosis and monitoring of temporal arteritis, systemic vasculitis and polymyalgia rheumatica. Extremely elevated ESR is useful in developing a rheumatic disease differential diagnosis. In addition, ESR may still be a good option in some situations, when, for example, the newer tests are not available in areas with limited resources or when monitoring the course of a disease.

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An estradiol test measures the amount of the hormone estradiol in your blood. It’s also called an E2 test.


Estradiol is a form of the hormone estrogen. It’s also called 17 beta-estradiol. The ovaries, breasts, and adrenal glands make estradiol. During pregnancy, the placenta also makes estradiol.


Estradiol helps with the growth and development of female sex organs, including the:


uterus

fallopian tubes

vagina

breasts

Estradiol helps to control the way fat is distributed in the female body. It’s also essential for bone and joint health in females.


Males also have estradiol in their bodies. Their levels of estradiol are lower than the levels in females. In males, the adrenal glands and testes make estradiol. Estradiol has been shown in vitro to prevent destruction of sperm cells, but its clinical importance in sexual function and development in men is likely less significant than in women.

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The estrogen test measures the total amounts of the estrogen in the blood. Estrogens are the hormones responsible for female sexual development and function. Estrogens are secreted by the gonads, adrenal glands, and placenta.


Normal estrogen results depend upon the sex and age of the person being tested. With women, it also depends upon their menstrual cycle or whether they are pregnant.

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Estrone (E1) is one of the three estrogens, which also includes estradiol (E2) and estriol (E3). Estrone is the least abundant of the three and is relevant to health and disease because it is considered the stronger acting estrogen.


In post-menopausal women, higher levels of E1 when compared to the other estrogens have been implicated in cardiovascular disease, stroke, and certain types of cancer.


If you are taking estrogen replacement therapy, it is important to follow the balance of the three main estrogens in your body. Imbalances in the relationship between E1 and the other two major estrogens are thought to increase the risk for many age-related diseases.

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Lipids are a group of fats and fat-like substances that are important constituents of cells and sources of energy. A lipid profile measures the level of specific lipids in the blood.


Two important lipids, cholesterol and triglycerides, are transported in the blood by lipoprotein particles. Each particle contains a combination of protein, cholesterol, triglyceride, and phospholipid molecules. The particles measured with a lipid profile are classified by their density into high-density lipoproteins (HDL), low-density lipoproteins (LDL), and very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL).


Monitoring and maintaining healthy levels of these lipids is important in staying healthy. While the body produces the cholesterol needed to function properly, the source for some cholesterol is the diet. Eating too much of foods that are high in saturated fats and trans unsaturated fats (trans fats) or having an inherited predisposition can result in a high level of cholesterol in the blood. The extra cholesterol may be deposited in plaques on the walls of blood vessels. Plaques can narrow or eventually block the opening of blood vessels, leading to hardening of the arteries (atherosclerosis) and increasing the risk of numerous health problems, including heart disease and stroke. A high level of triglycerides in the blood is also associated with an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease (CVD), although the reason for this is not well understood.

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Tendinitis is inflammation or irritation of a tendon — any one of the thick fibrous cords that attaches muscle to bone. The condition causes pain and tenderness just outside a joint. While tendinitis can occur in any of your body's tendons, it's most common around your shoulders, elbows, wrists, knees and heels

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Histopathology (or histology) involves the examination of sampled whole tissues under the microscope. Three main types of specimen are received by the pathology laboratory.


Specimens received by the pathology laboratory require tissue preparation then are treated and analysed using techniques appropriate to the type of tissue and the investigation required. For immediate diagnosis during a surgical procedure a frozen section is performed


Larger specimens include whole organs or parts thereof, which are removed during surgical operations. Examples include a uterus after a hysterectomy, the large bowel after a colectomy or tonsils after a tonsillectomy.


Pieces of tissue rather than whole organs are removed as biopsies, which often require smaller surgical procedures that can be performed whilst the patient is still awake but sedated. Biopsies include excision biopsies, in which tissue is removed with a scalpel (e.g. a skin excision for a suspicious mole) or a core biopsy, in which a needle is inserted into a suspicious mass to remove a slither or core of tissue that can be examined under the microscope (e.g. to investigate a breast lump).


Fluid and very small pieces of tissue (individual cells rather than groups of cells, e.g. within fluid from around the lung) can be obtained via a fine needle aspiration (FNA). This is performed using a thinner needle than that used in a core biopsy, but with a similar technique. This type of material is usually liquid rather than solid, and is submitted for cytology rather than histology (see Cytopathology).

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Coagulation factors are proteins circulating in the blood that are essential for proper blood clot formation. Coagulation factor tests measure the function of or sometimes the amount of these proteins in the blood.


Blood clotting is a complex process that involves numerous coagulation factors, which are produced by the liver and blood vessels. Each coagulation factor is evaluated with one or more tests. When factor levels are low, it can cause blood clotting to fail, leading to unexplained bleeding episodes. Measuring coagulation factors can help a healthcare practitioner determine the cause of the bleeding and the best treatment.


Coagulation factors are usually tested by measuring the factor's activity level in the blood. Activity assays can detect reduced levels of protein or proteins that don't function properly. Rarely, the amount (antigen level) of a coagulation factor may also be measured. Coagulation factor antigen tests can tell how much of the protein is present, but not whether its function is normal.


When someone bleeds (e.g., with an injury), the coagulation system is activated, plugging the leaking blood vessel with a clot. The coagulation system consists of a series of coagulation factors that activate in a step-by-step process called the coagulation cascade. The end result is the formation of insoluble fibrin threads that link together at the site of injury, along with aggregated cell fragments called platelets, to form a stable blood clot. The clot prevents additional blood loss and remains in place until the injured area has healed.


Blood clotting is dynamic; once a clot is formed, other factors are activated that slow clotting or dissolve the clot in a process called fibrinolysis. The clot is eventually removed after the injury site heals. In normal healthy individuals, this balance between clot formation and removal ensures that bleeding does not become excessive and that clots are removed once they are no longer needed.


For people with bleeding disorders, clotting does not work properly because they lack platelets or coagulation factors, or their platelets or factors don't work properly. There are a variety of bleeding disorders that may be passed through families (inherited) or acquired after birth. If a person has signs and symptoms of one of these disorders, coagulation factor testing may be ordered to help determine the diagnosis and treatment.


There are nine coagulation factor proteins that can be measured clinically (see table below). These factors are referred to by a name or Roman numeral or both in some cases. For example, coagulation factor II is also known as prothrombin. When one or more of these factors are produced in too small a quantity, or are not functioning correctly, they can cause excessive bleeding.

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Fibrin degradation products (FDP) are substances that remain in your bloodstream after your body dissolves a blood clot. Your fibrinolytic (clot-busting) system manages and regulates clot dissolving.


When you cut yourself, the injured blood vessel constricts to stop bleeding and promote healing. This process is called hemostasis. Platelets in your blood gather together and stick to the injury site to form a plug or clot. The formation of the plug or clot is called the clotting cascade.


Fibrin is a protein that aids in clotting. Clotting, also called coagulation, at the wound site produces a mass of fibrin threads called a net. The net remains in place until the cut is healed. As the cut heals, the clotting slows down. Eventually the clot breaks down and dissolves.


When the clot and fibrin net dissolve, fragments of protein are released into the body. These fragments are fibrin degradation products (FDPs). If your body is unable to dissolve a clot, you may have abnormal levels of FDPs.


Blood tests can measure your level of FDPs to see if you have a clotting disorder. The fibrin degradation products test is a specific test that determines the amount of FDPs in your blood. The test is also known as the fibrin split products (FSPs) test, or the fibrin breakdown products test.

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Ferritin is an iron-containing protein and is the primary form of iron stored inside of cells. The small quantity of ferritin that is released into the blood is a reflection of the amount of total iron stored in the body. This test measures the amount of ferritin in the blood.


In healthy people, about 70% of the iron absorbed by the body is incorporated into the hemoglobin of red blood cells. Most of the remaining 30% is stored as ferritin or as hemosiderin, a complex of iron, proteins, and other materials. Ferritin and hemosiderin are present primarily in the liver but also in the bone marrow, spleen, and skeletal muscles.


When available iron is insufficient to meet the body's needs, iron stores are depleted and ferritin levels decrease. This may occur because of insufficient iron intake, inadequate absorption, or increased need for iron such as during pregnancy or due to a condition that causes chronic blood loss. Significant depletion of iron stores may occur before any signs of iron deficiency develop.


Iron storage and ferritin levels increase when more iron is absorbed than the body needs. Chronic absorption of excess iron will lead to the progressive buildup of iron compounds in organs and may eventually cause their dysfunction and failure. This happens in hemochromatosis, a genetic disease in which the body absorbs too much iron, even on a normal diet.

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A fetal hemoglobin test is a blood test that checks the amount of fetal hemoglobin (Hb F) in the blood. Fetal hemoglobin is one of many types of hemoglobin. It is present in high levels in fetuses, but usually drops to trace amounts about six months after birth. If Hb F is at higher than normal levels, it can mean you have thalassemia, myeloid leukemia, or sickle cell anemia.

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Fibrinogen is a protein, a coagulation factor (factor I) that is essential for blood clot formation. Two types of tests are available to evaluate fibrinogen: a fibrinogen activity test evaluates how well fibrinogen functions in helping to form a blood clot while a fibrinogen antigen test measures the amount of fibrinogen in the blood.


Fibrinogen is produced by the liver and released into circulation along with several other coagulation factor proteins. Normally, when a body tissue or blood vessel wall is injured, a process called hemostasis begins to help stop the bleeding by forming a plug at the injury site. Small cell fragments called platelets adhere to and aggregate at the site, a coagulation cascade begins, and clotting factors are activated one after the other.


As the cascade nears completion, soluble fibrinogen is converted into insoluble fibrin threads. These threads crosslink together to form a fibrin net that stabilizes at the injury site. The fibrin net adheres to the site of injury along with the platelets to form a stable blood clot. This barrier prevents additional blood loss and remains in place until the injured area has healed.


For a stable clot to form there must be enough normally functioning platelets and coagulation factors. If there are dysfunctional factors or platelets, or too little or too much of them, it can lead to bleeding episodes and/or to formation of an in appropriate blood clot (thrombosis). Several laboratory tests, including fibrinogen tests, can be used to evaluate hemostasis.

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Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is a parasitic disease caused by nematodes (Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi and Brugia timori) whose preferred habitats are the lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes which induce the development of disfiguring and debilitating clinical symptoms. The infection, which is transmitted by various genera of mosquitoes (Sasa 1976), is considered to be one of the health problems of greatest social and economic impact in endemic areas (Ottesen et al. 1997).


Until the 1980s, the only direct way to confirm a diagnosis of infection by W. bancrofti was via the identification of microfilariae (MF) in peripheral blood using camera counting, polycarbonate membrane filtration, the thick smear method or Knott's technique (Knott 1939, Denham et al. 1971, Dennis & Kaen 1971, Eberhard & Lammie 1991). Apart from the low sensitivities of these methods arising from the fact that they only identify filarial infection by way of microfilaremia, they are also inconvenient in terms of the time of day the blood must be collected, namely when the MF are at a peak in peripheral blood, a parameter that varies from one endemic area to another. In Brazil, the peak for microfilaremia occurs between 11 pm-1 am (Dreyer et al. 1996).


In the 1990s, significant advances were made in the diagnosis of LF with the emergence of new diagnostic tools: (i) use of recombinant antigens to detect specific antibodies (Chandrasherkar et al. 1994); (ii) a PCR for the detection of filarial DNA (Zhong et al. 1996, Rocha et al. 2002); (iii) the visualisation of live adult worms (AW) using ultrasound (US) and (iv) circulating filarial antigen (CFA) detection (More & Copeman 1990, Weil et al. 1997). At present, the standard diagnostic tools are US (Amaral et al. 1994) and CFA detection, with the latter using the monoclonal antibodies (McAbs) Og4C3 and AD12. The CFA detection techniques are commercially available in the form of kits and have the advantage of allowing for diagnosis to be carried out using blood samples collected at any time of day (More & Copeman 1990, Amaral et al. 1994, Weil et al. 1997, Rocha 2002, 2004)

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For a palpable breast lump, a fine needle is inserted through the skin and directed towards the suspicious area. When this needle reaches the mass, the doctor suctions out a sample with the help of syringe, which is then sent to the laboratory for further analysis.

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The fluorescent treponemal antibody absorption (FTA-ABS) test is a blood test that checks for the presence of antibodies to Treponema pallidum bacteria. These bacteria cause syphilis.


Syphilis s a sexually transmitted infection (STI) that’s spread through direct contact with syphilitic sores. Sores are most often present on the penis, vagina, or rectum. These sores aren’t always noticeable. You may not even know that you’re infected.


The FTA-ABS test doesn’t actually check for the syphilis infection itself. However, it can determine whether you have antibodies to the bacteria that cause it. Antibodies are special proteins produced by the immune system when harmful substances are detected. These harmful substances, known as antigens, include viruses, fungi, and bacteria. This means that people who are infected with syphilis will have the corresponding antibodies.

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Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) and Folic Acid (Folate) both play key roles in DNA synthesis and creating red blood cells. This test is used to measure vitamin B12 and folic acid levels.


Deficiencies in vitamin B12 can lead to nerve damage and specific cases of anemia in which red blood cells are larger than average and the level of hemoglobin in the blood are deficient, called macrocyotic anemia. Deficiencies in folate can cause neural tube defects to occur to a fetus during pregnancy.


Malnutrition or conditions that can cause an individual to have poor absorption of nutrients like celiac disease, Crohn's disease, alcoholism or intestinal or gastrointestinal disorders may have low levels of B12 and folic acid.

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Prostate specific antigen (PSA) is a protein produced primarily by cells in the prostate, a small gland that encircles the urethra in males and produces a fluid that makes up part of semen. Most of the PSA that the prostate produces is released into this fluid, but small amounts of it are also released into the bloodstream. This test measures the amount of PSA in the blood.


The PSA test is used as a tumor marker to screen for and to monitor prostate cancer. It is a good tool but not a perfect one, and most experts agree that screening should be done on asymptomatic men only after thorough discussions with their healthcare providers on the benefits and risks and after informed decisions are made to undergo screening. Elevated levels of PSA are associated with prostate cancer, but they may also be seen with prostatitis and benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). PSA levels tend to increase in all men as they age, and men of African American heritage may have levels that are higher than other men, even at earlier ages.


PSA is not diagnostic of cancer. The gold standard for identifying prostate cancer is the prostate biopsy, collecting small samples of prostate tissue and identifying abnormal cells under the microscope. (Read the article on Anatomic Pathology for more information on biopsies.) The total PSA test and digital rectal exam (DRE) are used together to help determine the need for a prostate biopsy.


The goal of screening is to detect prostate cancer while it is still confined to the prostate. Once the presence of prostate cancer is confirmed by biopsy, another decision must be made with regard to treatment. Prostate cancer is relatively common in men as they age and many, if not most, of the tumors are very slow-growing. While prostate cancer is the number two cause of death in men, the slow-growing type is an uncommon cause of death. A pathologist may be able to help differentiate between slow-growing cases and cancers that are likely to grow aggressively and spread to other parts of the body (metastasize).

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Triiodothyronine (T3) is one of two major hormones produced by the thyroid gland, a small butterfly-shaped organ that lies flat across the windpipe at the base of the throat. The other major thyroid hormone is called thyroxine (T4) and together they help control the rate at which the body uses energy. Almost all of the T3 (and T4) found in the blood is bound to protein. The rest is free (unbound) and is the biologically active form of the hormone. Tests can measure the amount of free T3 or the total T3 (bound plus unbound) in the blood.


T3 and T4 production is regulated by a feedback system. When blood levels of thyroid hormones decline, the hypothalamus releases thyrotropin releasing hormone, which stimulates the pituitary gland to produce and release thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). TSH then stimulates the thyroid gland to produce and/or release more thyroid hormones. Most of the thyroid hormone produced is T4. This hormone is relatively inactive, but it is converted into the much more active T3 in the liver and other tissues.


If the thyroid gland produces excessive amounts of T4 and T3, then the person affected may have symptoms associated with hyperthyroidism, such as nervousness, tremors of the hands, weight loss, insomnia, and puffiness around dry, irritated eyes. In some cases, the person's eyes cannot move normally and they may appear to be staring. In other cases, the eyes may appear to bulge.


If the thyroid gland produces insufficient amounts of thyroid hormones, then the person may have signs and symptoms associated with hypothyroidism and a slowed metabolism, such as weight gain, dry skin, fatigue, and constipation. The blood levels of thyroid hormones may be low or high due to thyroid dysfunction or rarely due to insufficient or excessive TSH production related to a pituitary disorder.


The most common causes of thyroid dysfunction are related to autoimmune disorders. Graves disease causes hyperthyroidism, but it can also be caused by thyroiditis, thyroid cancer, and excessive production of TSH. The effect of these conditions on thyroid hormone production can be detected and monitored by measuring the free T3 or sometimes total T3.

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Thyroxine (T4) is one of two major hormones produced by the thyroid gland, a small butterfly-shaped organ that lies flat across the windpipe at the base of the throat. The other major thyroid hormone is called triiodothyronine (T3) and together they help control the rate at which the body uses energy. Almost all of the T4 (and T3) found in the blood is bound to protein. The rest is free (unbound) and is the biologically active form of the hormone. This test measures the amount of free T4 in the blood.


T4 production is regulated by a feedback system. When the level of T4 in the bloodstream decreases, the hypothalamus releases thyrotropin releasing hormone, which stimulates the pituitary gland to produce and release thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). TSH then stimulates the thyroid gland to make and/or release more T4. As the blood concentration of T4 increases, TSH release is inhibited.


T4 makes up about 90% of thyroid hormones. When the body requires thyroid hormone, the thyroid gland releases stored T4 into circulation. In the blood, T4 is either free (not bound) or bound to protein (primarily bound to thyroxine-binding globulin). The concentration of free T4 is only about 0.1% of that of total T4. T4 is converted into T3 in the liver or other tissues. T3, like T4, is also mostly bound to protein, but it is the free forms of T3 and T4 that are biologically active. Free T3 is 4 to 5 times more active than free T4 in circulation.


If the thyroid gland does not produce sufficient T4, due to thyroid dysfunction or to insufficient TSH, then the affected person experiences symptoms of hypothyroidism such as weight gain, dry skin, cold intolerance, irregular menstruation, and fatigue. Severe untreated hypothyroidism, called myxedema, can lead to heart failure, seizures, and coma. In children, hypothyroidism can stunt growth and delay sexual development.

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Testosterone is the main sex hormone (androgen) in men. It is responsible for male physical characteristics. Although it is considered to be a "male" sex hormone, it is present in the blood of both men and women. This test measures the level of testosterone in the blood.


Testosterone is mainly produced by special endocrine tissue (the Leydig cells) in the male testicles. It is also produced by the adrenal glands in both males and females and, in small amounts, by the ovaries in females.


In males, testosterone stimulates development of secondary sex characteristics, including enlargement of the penis, growth of body hair, muscle development, and a deepening voice. It is present in large amounts in males during puberty and in adult males to regulate the sex drive and maintain muscle mass. In women, testosterone is converted to estradiol, the main sex hormone in females.


Testosterone production is stimulated and controlled by luteinizing hormone (LH), which is manufactured by the pituitary gland. Testosterone works within a negative feedback mechanism: as the testosterone level increases, LH production decreases, which slows testosterone production; decreased testosterone causes increased production of LH, which in turn stimulates testosterone production.


Testosterone levels are diurnal, peaking in the early morning hours (about 4:00 to 8:00 am), with the lowest levels in the evening (about 4:00 to 8:00 pm). Levels also increase after exercise and also decrease with age.


About two-thirds of testosterone circulates in the blood bound to sex-hormone binding globulin (SHBG) and slightly less than one-third bound to albumin. A small percent (less than 4%) circulates as free testosterone. The free plus the albumin-bound testosterone is the bioavailable fraction, which can act on target tissues.

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Fructosamine is a glycated serum protein which is formed by the combination of glucose and protein in the blood. Higher the levels of blood glucose, higher will be the concentration of fructosamine. Hence, the blood fructosamine levels reflect the amount of glucose present. Glycation mainly involves albumin which is the principal blood protein. Other protein substance may also combine with glucose. These protein substances have a lifespan of about 2-3 weeks. By measuring the level of fructosamine, you get an idea of the level of blood glucose over the past 2-3 weeks. Fructosamine test is usually performed on a blood sample to measure the level of fructosamine in blood. The test is performed to confirm Diabetes and also useful in estimating the blood sugar trends in the diabetic patient.

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Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is an important part of the reproductive system. It’s responsible for the growth of ovarian follicles. Follicles produce estrogen and progesterone in the ovaries and help maintain the menstrual cycles in women. In men, FSH is a part of the development of the gonads as well as sperm production.


The FSH test measures the level of FSH found in your blood. Your doctor will order an FSH test to find the underlying cause of symptoms affecting the reproductive system.

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Fungi are microbes that exist in nature as one-celled yeasts or as branching filamentous molds (also may be spelled "moulds"). Only about 20 to 25 species of fungi are common causes of infection. Fungal tests detect infections and sometimes identify the fungus and help guide treatment. 


Fungal infections range from superficial skin infections to serious deep tissue, blood, lung, or systemic diseases.


Superficial fungal infections are very common. They may cause nail infections or itchy, red, scaly skin infections such as those commonly known as athlete's foot, jock itch, and ringworm, or yeast infections that cause white patches in the mouth (thrush) or vaginal itching and discharge. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), almost 75% of women will have at least one yeast infection in their lifetime.

Lung, blood, and systemic infections: less commonly, fungi cause serious lung infections, blood infections (septicemia), or systemic infections that can affect any organ in the body. Fungal lung infections typically start with the accidental inhalation of microscopic fungal spores. While anyone can get a serious lung or systemic fungal infection, most affected people will only experience mild to moderate flu-like symptoms. However, people who are immunocompromised, such as those with HIV/AIDS, organ transplant recipients, and people with an underlying condition such as diabetes or lung disease are at an increased risk of having a severe fungal infection, a systemic infection, and/or recurrent infections.

Fungal tests are used to detect and identify fungi in order to diagnose infections and help guide treatment. Fungal testing typically includes a microscopic examination of the sample on a slide, sometimes using a preparation or stain to aid in detection of fungal elements. This may be sufficient to determine that the infection is due to a fungus and, with superficial infections, no further testing may be required.


However, in cases of persistent, deep, or systemic infections when a more definitive diagnosis is needed, the microscopic exam may be followed by additional tests, such as culture and susceptibility testing, antigen or antibody tests, or molecular tests that detect fungal genetic material.

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Fungal Smear test is performed on a sample of skin to measure the level of Fungal Smear (Skin) in the skin.It is performed to confirm Fungal Infection of Skin and also during the treatment and after the treatment of Fungal Infection of Skin and Immunosuppressive Condition.

No special preparation is needed for Fungal Smear Koh Test Skin. Inform your doctor if you are on any medications or have any underlying medical conditions or allergies before undergoing Fungal Smear Koh Test Skin. Your doctor depending on your condition will give specific instructions.

The normal result for Fungal Smear Koh Test Skin for Fungal Smear (Skin) is A normal KOH test result shows no Fungi. A stained slide fluoresce is observed if positive for fungus. A positive test indicates Fungal infection but it cannot identify the organism. If KOH test is positive then, specimen is inoculated into culture media. for Unisex gender and for All age groups.


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Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) is an enzyme involved in energy production. It is found in all cells, including red blood cells (RBCs) and helps protect them from certain toxic by-products of cellular metabolism. A deficiency in G6PD causes RBCs to become more vulnerable to breaking apart (hemolysis) under certain conditions. This test measures the amount of G6PD in RBCs to help diagnose a deficiency.


G6PD deficiency is a genetic disorder. When individuals who have inherited this condition are exposed to a trigger such as stress, an infection, certain drugs or other substance(s), significant changes occur in the structure of the outer layer (cell membrane) of their red blood cells. Hemoglobin, the life-sustaining, oxygen-transporting protein within RBCs, forms deposits (precipitates) called Heinz bodies. Some individuals may experience these reactions when exposed to fava beans, a condition called "favism." With these changes, RBCs can break apart more readily, causing a decrease in the number of RBCs. When the body cannot produce sufficient RBCs to replace those destroyed, hemolytic anemia results and the individual may develop jaundice, weakness, fatigue, and/or shortness of breath.


G6PD deficiency is the most common enzyme deficiency in the world, affecting more than 400 million people. It may be seen in up to 10% of African-American males and 20% of African males. It is also commonly found in people from the Mediterranean and Southeast Asia.


G6PD deficiency is inherited, passed from parent to child, due to mutations or changes in the G6PD gene that cause decreased enzyme activity. There are over 440 variants of G6PD deficiency. The G6PD gene is located on the sex-linked X chromosome. Since men have one X and one Y sex chromosome, their single X chromosome carries the G6PD gene. This may result in a G6PD deficiency if a male inherits the single X chromosome with an altered gene.


Since women have two X sex chromosomes, they inherit two copies of the G6PD gene. Women with only one mutated gene (heterozygous) produce enough G6PD that they usually do not experience any symptoms (i.e., asymptomatic), but under situations of stress, they may demonstrate a mild form of the deficiency. In addition, a mother may pass the single mutated gene to any male children. Rarely do women have two mutated gene copies (homozygous), which could result in G6PD deficiency.

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Galactose is a sugar that is part of the lactose found in milk and milk products. A galactosemia test is a blood or urine test that checks for enzymes that are needed to change galactose into glucose, a sugar that your body uses for energy. A person with galactosemia doesn't have one of these enzymes, so high levels of galactose build up in the blood or urine.


When galactose builds up in a baby's blood, it can cause liver damage, problems with eating, and intellectual disabilities. The damage caused by galactosemia can begin within weeks after the baby has started drinking breast milk or formula. Babies with galactosemia need foods low in galactose in order to gain weight and to prevent brain damage, liver problems, infection, and cataracts.


Galactosemia is a rare disease that is passed from parents to children (inherited genetic disorder). A galactosemia test is usually done to determine whether a newborn has the disease. In a family with a member who has galactosemia, a genetic test can be done on adults to find out whether they have an increased chance of having a child with the disease.

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Frequent urination is a condition defined when the need to urinate is felt several times an hour, caused by the false impression of once again having a full bladder. The quantity of urine passed during the day is not, however, larger, as the urinations are very small in volume. Daytime frequent urination is assessed based on the frequency with which the patient has to go to the toilet. This false impression is most of the time due to an irritation in one of the urinary organs. There can be many different underlying causes of this irritation, such as inflammation of the bladder, called cystitis or more commonly urinary infection, or prostatitis, which is an inflammation or benign swelling of the prostate in men.


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A ganglioside is a molecule of a glycosphingolipid with one other sialic salts  sialic acids (e.g. n-acetylneuraminic acid, NANA) linked on the sugar chain. NeuNAc, an acetylated derivative of the carbohydrate sialic acid, makes the head groups of gangliosides anionic at pH 7, which distinguishes them from globosides.


The name ganglioside was first applied by the German scientist Ernst Klenk in 1942 to lipids newly isolated from ganglion cells of the brain. More than 60 gangliosides are known, which differ from each other mainly in the position and number of NANA residues. It is a component of the cell plasma membrane that modulates cell signal transduction events, and appears to concentrate in lipid rafts

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Gastrin is a hormone produced by "G-cells" in the part of the stomach called the antrum. It regulates the production of acid in the body of the stomach during the digestive process. This test measures the amount of gastrin in the blood to help evaluate an individual with recurrent peptic ulcers and/or other serious abdominal symptoms.


When food is eaten, the antrum of the stomach becomes distended and the presence of food stimulates the release of gastrin. Gastrin in turn stimulates parietal cells to produce gastric acid. Acidity helps to digest food and the rise in acidity eventually suppresses gastrin release. This feedback system normally results in low concentrations of gastrin in the blood, especially in the fasting state. Rare conditions such as G-cell hyperplasia and gastrinomas, including Zollinger-Ellison (ZE) syndrome, can cause an overproduction of gastrin and gastric acid. This can lead to aggressive peptic ulcers that can be difficult to treat.


Gastrinomas are gastrin-producing tumors. ZE syndrome is a condition caused by the presence of one or more gastrinomas and is characterized by high gastrin levels, greatly increased gastric acid production, and by peptic ulcers. Gastrinomas usually form in the pancreas, even though the endocrine cells of the pancreas do not normally make gastrin. More than half of them are malignant, causing cancer that can spread to other parts of the body, such as the liver. Even tiny tumors can produce large quantities of gastrin.

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GCT test is used to help diagnose gestational diabetes and type 2 diabetes. A glucose tolerance test measures how well your body’s cells are able to absorb glucose, or sugar, after you ingest a given amount of sugar.

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Gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) is an enzyme that is found in many organs throughout the body, with the highest concentrations found in the liver. GGT is elevated in the blood in most diseases that cause damage to the liver or bile ducts. This test measures the level of GGT in a blood sample.


Normally, GGT is present in low levels, but when the liver is injured, the GGT level can rise. GGT is usually the first liver enzyme to rise in the blood when any of the bile ducts that carry bile from the liver to the intestines become obstructed, for example, by tumors or stones. This makes it the most sensitive liver enzyme test for detecting bile duct problems.


However, the GGT test is not very specific and is not useful in differentiating between various causes of liver damage because it can be elevated with many types of liver diseases, such as liver cancer and viral hepatitis, as well as other non-hepatic conditions, such as acute coronary syndrome. For this reason, the GGT test is not recommended for routine use by itself. However, it can be useful in conjunction with other tests and in determining the cause of a high alkaline phosphatase (ALP) level, another enzyme found in the liver.


Both GGT and ALP are increased in liver diseases, but only ALP will be increased with diseases affecting bone tissue. Therefore, GGT can be used as a follow up to an elevated ALP to help determine if the high ALP result is due to liver or bone disease.


GGT levels are sometimes increased with consumption of even small amounts of alcohol. Higher levels are found more commonly in chronic heavy drinkers than in people who consume less than 2 to 3 drinks per day or who only drink heavily on occasion (binge drinkers). The GGT test may be used in evaluating someone for acute or chronic alcohol abuse.

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A glucagon blood test measures the amount of a hormone called glucagon in your blood. Glucagon is produced by cells in the pancreas. It helps control your blood sugar level by increasing blood sugar when it is too low.

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C-peptide is a substance, a short chain of amino acids, that is released into the blood as a byproduct of the formation of insulin by the pancreas. This test measures the amount of C-peptide in a blood or urine sample.


In the pancreas, within specialized cells called beta cells, proinsulin, a biologically inactive molecule, splits apart to form one molecule of C-peptide and one molecule of insulin. Insulin is vital for the transport of glucose into the body's cells and is required on a daily basis. When insulin is required and released from the beta cells into the blood in response to increased levels of glucose, equal amounts of C-peptide are also released. Since C-peptide is produced at the same rate as insulin, it is useful as a marker of insulin production.


In particular, C-peptide testing can be used to help evaluate the production of insulin made by the body (endogenous) and to help differentiate it from insulin that is not produced by the body but is taken in as diabetic medication (exogenous) and so does not generate C-peptide. This test may be done in conjunction with an insulin test.

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Blood sugar (glucose) is usually present in the urine at very low levels or not at all. Abnormally high amounts of sugar in the urine, known as glycosuria, are usually the result of high blood sugar levels. High blood sugar usually occurs in diabetes, especially when untreated. It serves as the main source of energy used by the body. Insulin is a hormone that helps the body's cells to use the glucose. Excess or shortage of insulin in the body causes an imbalance of the blood glucose in the body, leading to its severe drop or drastic increase in the blood. Blood glucose levels that remain high over time can cause damage to the eyes, kidneys, nerves and blood vessels. Chronic low glucose levels can lead to brain and nerve damage.


Fasting blood sugar is a test for glucose content in a person’s blood that, as the name suggests, is conducted after fasting. The test is generally carried out in the morning, after an overnight fasting. As a part of the test, a sample of the patient’s blood is collected and then sent to the lab for testing.


A fasting blood sugar test offers information about how the body is managing the blood sugar levels. Normally, the range of glucose in a person’s blood is between 70 to 100 mg/dl. Fasting blood sugar levels between 100 to 126 mg/dl are considered as pre-diabetic or impaired fasting glucose and blood sugar levels of 126 mg/dl or higher are diagnosed as diabetes.

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This is a blood test to check for diabetes. If you have diabetes, your body doesn't make enough insulin to keep your blood sugar in check. This means your blood sugar levels are too high, and over time this can lead to serious health problems including nerve and eye damage.


This test is done to see how your body responds to sugar and starch after you eat a meal. As you digest the food in your stomach, blood glucose, or blood sugar, levels rise sharply. In response, your pancreas releases insulin to help move these sugars from the blood into the cells of muscles and other tissues to be used for fuel. Within two hours of eating, your insulin and blood glucose levels should return to normal. If your blood glucose levels remain high, you may have diabetes.

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Blood sugar (glucose) is usually present in the urine at very low levels or not at all. Abnormally high amounts of sugar in the urine, known as glycosuria, are usually the result of high blood sugar levels. High blood sugar usually occurs in diabetes, especially when untreated. It serves as the main source of energy used by the body. Insulin is a hormone that helps the body's cells to use the glucose. Excess or shortage of insulin in the body causes an imbalance of the blood glucose in the body, leading to its severe drop or drastic increase in the blood. Blood glucose levels that remain high over time can cause damage to the eyes, kidneys, nerves and blood vessels. Chronic low glucose levels can lead to brain and nerve damage.

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The term HbA1c refers to glycated haemoglobin. It develops when haemoglobin, a protein within red blood cells that carries oxygen throughout your body, joins with glucose in the blood, becoming 'glycated'.


By measuring glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c), clinicians are able to get an overall picture of what our average blood sugar levels have been over a period of weeks/months.


For people with diabetes this is important as the higher the HbA1c, the greater the risk of developing diabetes-related complications. 


HbA1c is also referred to as haemoglobin A1c or simply A1c.

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Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulation test is the gold standard to identify central precocious puberty (CPP). This test requires multiple blood samples at different time points to measure gonadotropin levels, and is therefore expensive, time-consuming, and uncomfortable for patients. We aimed to simplify the GnRH stimulation test to require fewer blood samples.

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A growth hormone (GH) test measures the amount of human growth hormone (GH) in the blood. GH is made by the pituitary gland and is needed for growth. It plays an important role in how the body uses food for energy (metabolism). The amount of GH in the blood changes during the day and is affected by exercise, sleep, emotional stress, and diet.


Too much GH during childhood can cause a child to grow taller than normal (gigantism). Too little GH during childhood can cause a child to grow less than normal (dwarfism). Both conditions can be treated if found early.


In adults, too much GH is caused by a noncancerous tumor of the pituitary gland (adenoma). Too much GH can cause bones of the face, jaw, hands, and feet to grow larger than normal (acromegaly).


Growth hormone can cause the release of other substances (factors) that affect growth and metabolism. One of these is insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1). When the GH level is very high, the IGF-1 level is also very high. A test for IGF-1 may also be done to confirm high GH levels.

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Growth hormone (GH) is a hormone that is essential for normal growth and development in children. It promotes proper linear bone growth from birth through puberty. In both children and adults, growth hormone helps regulate the rate at which the body both produces energy from food (metabolism) and makes lipids, proteins, and glucose (sugar). It also helps regulate the production of red blood cells and muscle mass.


Growth hormone is produced by the pituitary gland, a grape-sized gland located at the base of the brain behind the bridge of the nose. It is normally released into the bloodstream in pulses throughout the day and night with peaks that occur mostly during the night. Because of this, a single measurement of the level of GH in blood is difficult to interpret and not usually clinically useful. The value will be higher if the sample is taken during a pulse and lower if it is taken during a period between pulses. GH stimulation and suppression tests are therefore often used to diagnose GH abnormalities. (See the "How is it used?" section.)


GH deficiency


Children with insufficient GH production grow more slowly and are smaller in size for their age. Some children have GH deficiency at birth (congenital), but some may develop a deficiency later due, for example, to a brain injury or tumor. These conditions can affect the pituitary gland, causing a decrease in pituitary function, resulting in a lowered production of pituitary hormones (hypopituitarism). Sometimes, the cause of the deficiency is not known.


In adults, growth hormone plays a role in regulating bone density, muscle mass, and glucose and lipid metabolism. It can also affect heart and kidney function. Deficiencies may have begun in childhood or develop in adulthood. A deficiency can develop, for example, because of damage to the pituitary gland caused by a head injury, brain tumor, or surgery or radiation treatment. This can result in a decrease in pituitary hormones (hypopituitarism). The deficiency in GH can lead to decreased bone density, less muscle mass, and altered lipid levels. However, testing for GH deficiency is not routine in adults who have decreased bone density and/or muscle strength or increased lipids. GH deficiency is a very rare cause of these disorders.

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Growth hormone promotes development from birth to puberty. It is also essential for the maintenance of metabolism, skeletal muscle, and bone tissue throughout one’s life

The pituitary gland, located at the base of the brain, releases growth hormone in periodic bursts. Most growth hormone is released during deep sleep

They hypothalamus of the brain in turn releases hormones that control growth hormone release by the pituitary gland. Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GH-RH) and growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GH-IH) stimulate and depress growth hormone secretion, respectively

Growth hormone affects nearly every cell in the body. It causes cells to increase their protein production and their fatty acid metabolism

The growth-inducing effects of growth hormone are important for adaptation to strenuous demands, such as exercise. Growth hormone also stimulates the replenishment of tissues during everyday wear and tear. The hormone is especially important during childhood development

Problems with the pituitary gland or GH-RH may cause growth hormone underproduction. This results in stunted growth, abnormal fat distribution, and difficulty regulating blood sugar

Excessive production of growth hormone, caused by tumors or problems with the regulatory mechanisms, may cause excessive growth. The resulting conditions, though similar, differ depending on the stage in life that a growth hormone overproduction occurred:

Growth hormone overproduction before puberty results in gigantism. This is marked by extreme lengthening of the skeleton, sometimes causing heights in excess of 8 feet

Growth hormone overproduction during adulthood results in acromegaly. Because the bones have already reached their maximum length, acromegaly is marked by bone thickening but not lengthening

The Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone Blood Test helps measure the levels of growth hormone-releasing hormone in blood. It is used to differentiate between a pituitary tumor and an ectopic secretion of GH-RH

If GH-RH levels are normal, the result of excessive growth hormone is likely a tumor of the pituitary gland that releases growth hormone without the need for stimulation by GH-RH

If GH-RH levels are increased, there may be an ectopic tumor of the hypothalamus that secretes GH-RH

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Growth hormone (GH) is secreted in a pulsatile manner and is cleared rapidly, resulting in dramatic fluctuations in GH levels.1-3 For this reason, random GH levels are generally not useful in establishing GH deficiency. A number of physiologic and pharmacologic stimuli can be used to provoke GH release. Several growth hormone stimulation protocols are described below. These tests are best performed in the morning after an overnight fast.3 Patients should be confirmed as euthyroid before these protocols are initiated.

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At least 3 blood samples are taken.


The test is done in the following way:


The first blood sample is collected between 6 a.m. and 8 a.m before you eat or drink anything.

You then drink a solution containing glucose (sugar). You may be told to drink slowly to avoid becoming nauseated. But you must drink the solution within 5 minutes to ensure the test result is accurate.

The next blood samples are usually collected for 1 to 2 hours after you finish drinking the glucose solution. Sometimes they are taken every 30 or 60 minutes.

Each sample is sent to the laboratory right away. The lab measures the glucose and growth hormone (GH) levels in each sample.

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A glucose tolerance test measures how well your body’s cells are able to absorb glucose, or sugar, after you ingest a given amount of sugar. Doctors use fasting blood sugar levels and hemoglobin A1c values to diagnose type 1 and type 2 diabetes, and prediabetes. A glucose tolerance test can also be used. Doctors primarily use a glucose tolerance test to diagnose gestational diabetes.


Doctors often diagnose type 1 diabetes quickly because it usually develops quickly and involves high blood sugar levels. Type 2 diabetes, on the other hand, often develops over years. Type 2 diabetes is the most common form of diabetes, and it usually develops during adulthood.


Gestational diabetes occurs when a pregnant woman who doesn’t have diabetes before pregnancy has high blood sugar levels as a result of the pregnancy. The American Diabetes Association estimates that gestational diabetes occurs in 9.2 percent of pregnancies.

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Helicobacter pylori is a type of bacteria that is known to be a major cause of peptic ulcer disease. H. pylori testing detects an infection of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract caused by the bacteria.


H. pylori is very common, especially in developing countries. The bacteria are present in (colonize) the stomachs and intestines of as many as 50% of the world's population. Most of those affected will never have any symptoms, but the presence of H. pylori increases the risk of developing ulcers (peptic ulcer disease), chronic gastritis, and gastric (stomach) cancer. The bacteria decrease the stomach's ability to produce mucus, making the stomach prone to acid damage and peptic ulcers.


There are several different types of H. pylori testing that can be performed. Some are less invasive than others.


Noninvasive


Stool antigen test – detection of H. pylori in a stool sample

Urea breath test – detection of labeled carbon dioxide in the breath after drinking a solution 


An antibody test using a blood sample is not recommended for routine diagnosis or for evaluation of treatment effectiveness. This test detects antibodies to the bacteria and will not distinguish between a present and previous infection. If the antibody test is negative, then it is unlikely that a person has had an H. pylori infection. If ordered and positive, results should be confirmed using a stool antigen or breath test.


Invasive


Invasive tests using an endoscopy procedure are less frequently performed than noninvasive tests because they require a tissue biopsy collection. Tests include:


Histology – examination of tissue under a microscope

Rapid urease testing – detects urease, an enzyme produced by H. pylori

Culture – growing H. pylori in/on a nutrient solution

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Hemoglobin is the iron-containing protein found in all red blood cells (RBCs) that gives the cells their characteristic red color. Hemoglobin enables RBCs to bind to oxygen in the lungs and carry it to tissues and organs throughout the body. It also helps transport a small portion of carbon dioxide, a product of cell metabolism, from tissues and organs to the lungs, where it is exhaled.


The hemoglobin test measures the amount of hemoglobin in a person's sample of blood. A hemoglobin level can be performed alone or with a hematocrit, a test that measures the proportion of blood that is made up of RBCs, to quickly evaluate an individual's red blood cells. Red blood cells, which make up about 40% (ranging 37-49%) of the blood's volume, are produced in the bone marrow and are released into the bloodstream when they are, or nearly are, mature. The typical lifespan of an RBC is 120 days, and the bone marrow must continually produce new RBCs to replace those that age and degrade or are lost through bleeding.


Several diseases and conditions can affect RBCs and consequently the level of hemoglobin in the blood. In general, the hemoglobin level and hematocrit rise when the number of red blood cells increases. The hemoglobin level and hematocrit fall to less than normal when there is a drop in production of RBCs by the bone marrow, an increase in the destruction of RBCs, or if blood is lost due to bleeding. A drop in the RBC count, hemoglobin and hematocrit can result in anemia, a condition in which tissues and organs in the body do not get enough oxygen, causing fatigue and weakness. If too many RBCs are produced, polycythemia results and the blood can become thickened, causing sluggish blood flow and related problems.

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The absolute hemoglobin A2 concentration in mg. per 100 ml. of blood was calculated from the hemoglobin level in Gm. per 100 ml. and hemoglobin A2 percentage for 38 patients with documented iron deficiency, 37 patients with proven beta-thalassemia minor, 26 patients with simple chronic anemia and 40 normal control laboratory workers. The mean hemoglobin A2 concentration (mg. per 100 ml.) in the control group was 459 plus or minus 60 (2 S.D.) and that in the beta-thalassemia group, 766 plus or minus 99. However, in the iron deficiency group it was 229 plus or minus 58, while in the simple chronic anemia group it was 315 plus or minus 39. The mean corpuscular volume (M.C.V.) in cu. mu was 90 plus or minus 8 (2 S.D.) in the normal controls, 68 plus or minus 10 in beta-thalassemia, 69 plus or minus 9 in iron deficiency, and 90 plus or minus 15 in secondary anemia. It is proposed that the absolute hemoglobin A2 level in mg. per 100 ml. of blood taken in conjunction with the M.C.V. is of value in establishing the diagnosis of iron deficiency.

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Fungal infections of the skin are very common and include athlete's foot, jock itch, ringworm, and yeast infections.

Athlete's Foot:-

Picture of Ringworm of the Foot (Tinea Pedis)Athlete's foot, also called tinea pedis, is a fungal infection of the foot. It causes peeling, redness, itching, burning, and sometimes blisters and sores.

Athlete's foot is a very common infection. The fungus grows best in a warm, moist environment such as shoes, socks, swimming pools, locker rooms, and the floors of public showers. It is most common in the summer and in warm, humid climates. It occurs more often in people who wear tight shoes and who use community baths and pools.
 

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A hemoglobin electrophoresis test is a blood test used to measure and identify the different types of hemoglobin in your bloodstream. Hemoglobin is the protein inside red blood cells responsible for transporting oxygen to your tissues and organs.


Genetic mutations can cause your body to produce hemoglobin that is formed incorrectly. This abnormal hemoglobin can cause too little oxygen to reach your tissues and organs.


There are hundreds of different types of hemoglobin. They include:


Hemoglobin F: This is also known as fetal hemoglobin. It’s the type found in growing fetuses and newborns. It’s replaced with hemoglobin A soon after birth.

Hemoglobin A: This is also known as adult hemoglobin. It’s the most common type of hemoglobin. It’s found in healthy children and adults.

Hemoglobin C, D, E, M, and S: These are rare types of abnormal hemoglobin caused by genetic mutations.

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A Complete Blood Count (cbc) or a Heamogram is the one of the most commonly ordered test. A complete blood count gives info in to components of blood i.e. White Blood Cells, Red Blood Cells and Platelet Count. The CBC also gives you information on Haemoglobin, the oxygen carrying component of your blood.


Why is Cbc Test is Performed?

A complete blood count (CBC) is a commonly performed pathology  lab test. It can be used to detect or monitor many different health conditions. It is a part of a routine check-up, if you are having symptoms, such as fatigue, weight loss, fever or other signs of an infection, weakness, bruising, bleeding, or any signs of cancer

When you are receiving treatments (medicines or radiation) that may change your blood count results

This test helps to monitor a chronic health problem that may change your blood count results, such as chronic kidney disease.


Advantage of  Complete Blood Count test: It can record any abnormality in the above components and give information of any underlying medial cause, especially in the case of Anaemia, Leukaemia and infection.


CBC is also ordered when you are suffering from fever or an infection. The test results can give multiple insights in to your infection.

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Haptoglobin is a protein produced by the liver that the body uses to clear free hemoglobin (found outside of red blood cells) from circulation. This test measures the amount of haptoglobin in the blood.


Hemoglobin is the iron-containing protein complex that transports oxygen throughout the body. It is normally found within red blood cells (RBCs) and very little is found free circulating in the blood. Haptoglobin binds to free hemoglobin in the blood. This forms a haptoglobin-hemoglobin complex that is rapidly cleared out of circulation for degradation and iron recycling.


However, when an increased number of RBCs are damaged and/or break apart (hemolysis), they release their hemoglobin into the blood, increasing the amount of free hemoglobin in circulation. When large numbers of RBCs are destroyed, haptoglobin concentrations in the blood will temporarily decrease as the haptoglobin is used up faster than the liver can produce it. A decrease in the amount of haptoglobin may be a sign that a person has a condition that is causing red blood cells to be destroyed or break apart. When the binding capacity of haptoglobin is exceeded, free hemoglobin level in circulation goes up and may cause tissue damage and organ dysfunction.


Increased RBC destruction may be due to inherited or acquired conditions. Some examples include transfusion reactions, certain drugs, and mechanical breakage, such as may be seen with some prosthetic heart valves. The destruction may be mild or severe, occurring suddenly (acute) or developing and lasting over a long period of time (chronic), and it can lead to hemolytic anemia. People with hemolytic anemia may experience symptoms such as fatigue, weakness, and shortness of breath and their skin may be pale or jaundiced. (For additional details, read the article on Hemolytic Anemia.)


Liver disease may also result in decreased haptoglobin concentrations as liver damage may inhibit both the production of haptoglobin and the clearing of the haptoglobin-free hemoglobin complexes.



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Hepatitis B tests detect substances that reflect a current or previous infection with hepatitis B virus (HBV). Some tests detect viral proteins (antigens) or the antibodies that are produced in response to an infection, while other types of tests detect or evaluate the genetic material (DNA) of the virus. The pattern of test results can identify a person who has a current active infection or one who has immunity as a result of previous exposure.


For details on the various tests, see the table under "How is it used?"


Hepatitis is a condition characterized by inflammation and enlargement of the liver. It has several various causes, one of which is infection by a virus. HBV is one of five "hepatitis viruses" identified so far that are known to mainly infect the liver. The other four are hepatitis A, hepatitis C, hepatitis D, and hepatitis E.


HBV is spread through contact with blood or other body fluids from an infected person. Exposure can occur, for example, through sharing of needles for IV drug use or through unprotected sex. People who live in or travel to areas of the world where hepatitis B is prevalent are at a greater risk. Rarely, mothers can pass the infection to their babies, usually during or after birth. The virus is not spread through casual contact such as holding hands, coughing or sneezing. However, the virus can survive outside the body for up to seven days, including in dried blood, and can be passed by sharing items such as razors or toothbrushes with an infected person.

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Hepatitis B tests detect substances that reflect a current or previous infection with hepatitis B virus (HBV). Some tests detect viral proteins (antigens) or the antibodies that are produced in response to an infection, while other types of tests detect or evaluate the genetic material (DNA) of the virus. The pattern of test results can identify a person who has a current active infection or one who has immunity as a result of previous exposure.


For details on the various tests, see the table under "How is it used?"


Hepatitis is a condition characterized by inflammation and enlargement of the liver. It has several various causes, one of which is infection by a virus. HBV is one of five "hepatitis viruses" identified so far that are known to mainly infect the liver. The other four are hepatitis A, hepatitis C, hepatitis D, and hepatitis E.


HBV is spread through contact with blood or other body fluids from an infected person. Exposure can occur, for example, through sharing of needles for IV drug use or through unprotected sex. People who live in or travel to areas of the world where hepatitis B is prevalent are at a greater risk. Rarely, mothers can pass the infection to their babies, usually during or after birth. The virus is not spread through casual contact such as holding hands, coughing or sneezing. However, the virus can survive outside the body for up to seven days, including in dried blood, and can be passed by sharing items such as razors or toothbrushes with an infected person.

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Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg): A protein on the surface of hepatitis B virus; it can be detected in high levels in serum during acute or chronic hepatitis B virus infection. The presence of HBsAg indicates that the person is infectious HBsAg is the antigen used to make hepatitis B vaccine.

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High-density lipoprotein (HDL cholesterol, HDL-C) is one of the classes of lipoproteins that carry cholesterol in the blood. HDL-C consists primarily of protein with a small amount of cholesterol. It is considered to be beneficial because it removes excess cholesterol from tissues and carries it to the liver for disposal. Hence, HDL cholesterol is often termed "good" cholesterol. The test for HDL cholesterol measures the amount of HDL-C in blood.


High levels of cholesterol have been shown to be associated with the development of hardening of the arteries (atherosclerosis) and heart disease. When cholesterol levels in the blood increase (not enough is removed by HDL), it may be deposited on the walls of blood vessels. These deposits, termed plaques, can build up, causing vessel walls to become more rigid, and may eventually narrow the openings of blood vessels, constricting the flow of blood.

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When the plasma hemoglobin level is >50 to 200 mg/dL after hemolysis, the capacity of haptoglobin to bind hemoglobin is exceeded, and hemoglobin readily passes through the glomeruli of the kidney. Part of the hemoglobin is absorbed by the proximal tubular cells where the hemoglobin iron is converted to hemosiderin. When these tubular cells are later shed into the urine, hemosiderinuria results. If all of the hemoglobin cannot be absorbed into the tubular cells, hemoglobinuria results.

Hemosiderin is found as yellow-brown granules that are free or in epithelial cells and occasionally in casts in an acidic or neutral urine.

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Hepatitis A is a highly contagious liver infection caused by the hepatitis A (HAV). It is one of several various causes of hepatitis, a condition characterized by inflammation and enlargement of the liver. This test detects antibodies in the blood that are produced by the immune system in response to a hepatitis A infection.


Hepatitis A is one of five "hepatitis viruses" identified so far, including B, C, D, and E, that are known to cause the disease. While hepatitis A can cause a severe, acute disease that typically lasts 1 to 2 months, it does not cause a chronic infection as do some of the other hepatitis viruses.


Hepatitis A is spread, most commonly, from person-to person through stool (fecal) contamination or by ingesting food or water contaminated by the stool of an infected person (a foodborne illness). Recognized risk factors for hepatitis A include close contact with an infected person, international travel, household or personal contact with a child who attends a child care center, household or personal contact with a newly arriving international adoptee, a recognized foodborne outbreak, men who have sex with men, and use of illegal drugs.


Although there are many causes of hepatitis, the symptoms remain the same. In hepatitis, the liver is damaged and unable to function normally. It cannot process toxins or waste products such as bilirubin for their removal from the body. During the course of the disease, bilirubin and liver enzyme levels in the blood can increase. While tests such as bilirubin or a liver panel can tell a health practitioner that someone has hepatitis, they do not identify the cause. Antibody tests for hepatitis viruses may help determine the cause.

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Hepatitis A is a highly contagious liver infection caused by the hepatitis A (HAV). It is one of several various causes of hepatitis, a condition characterized by inflammation and enlargement of the liver. This test detects antibodies in the blood that are produced by the immune system in response to a hepatitis A infection.

Hepatitis A is one of five "hepatitis viruses" identified so far, including B, C, D, and E, that are known to cause the disease. While hepatitis A can cause a severe, acute disease that typically lasts 1 to 2 months, it does not cause a chronic infection as do some of the other hepatitis viruses.

Hepatitis A is spread, most commonly, from person-to person through stool (fecal) contamination or by ingesting food or water contaminated by the stool of an infected person (a foodborne illness). Recognized risk factors for hepatitis A include close contact with an infected person, international travel, household or personal contact with a child who attends a child care center, household or personal contact with a newly arriving international adoptee, a recognized foodborne outbreak, men who have sex with men, and use of illegal drugs.

Although there are many causes of hepatitis, the symptoms remain the same. In hepatitis, the liver is damaged and unable to function normally. It cannot process toxins or waste products such as bilirubin for their removal from the body. During the course of the disease, bilirubin and liver enzyme levels in the blood can increase. While tests such as bilirubin or a liver panel can tell a health practitioner that someone has hepatitis, they do not identify the cause. Antibody tests for hepatitis viruses may help determine the cause.

There are two different classes of hepatitis A antibody that may be tested, IgM and IgG. When a person is exposed to hepatitis A, the body first produces hepatitis A IgM antibodies. These antibodies typically develop 2 to 3 weeks after first being infected (and are detectable before the onset of symptoms) and persist for about 3 to 6 months. Hepatitis A IgG antibodies are produced within 1 to 2 weeks of the IgM antibodies and usually persist for life.

1.Because hepatitis A IgM antibodies develop early in the course of infection, a positive hepatitis A IgM test is usually considered diagnostic for a current or recent infection of hepatitis A. This test may be done as part of an acute viral hepatitis panel used to determine which virus is causing symptoms when viral hepatitis is suspected.

2.An HAV IgG test may be used to help determine if a person has been infected in the past and has some immunity to the disease.

3.A total hepatitis A antibody test detects the presence of both the IgM and IgG antibodies, thus can identify current and past infections.

A vaccine that prevents hepatitis A has been available since 1995. Historically, infection rates varied cyclically, with nationwide increases every 10-15 years. However, rates have declined in general since the vaccine was introduced. In 2010, the number of acute hepatitis A cases reported nationwide declined by approximately 53% from about 3,600 in 2006.



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Gallstones are hard pebble deposits that contain cholesterol and bilirubin. These are of the size of small grain or golf ball stones generally present at the end of your gallbladder. If left untreated, gallstones become bigger with time. Compared to big stones, small ones are more problematic as they travel from one place to another. 

Further, these tiny stones get blocked in arteries, causing blockage. Every year, millions of people experience this issue. This guide will explain common symptoms, risk factors, treatment, preventive measures, and more about gallstones. We will also discuss top foods that you must avoid in such a condition. So, here we go.

An Introduction to Cholelithiasis

Gallstones, or cholelithiasis, are tiny bile deposits present in your gallbladder. These stones may sometimes cause blockage and swelling, causing severe health issues. If not treated timely, these can lead to complications like cancer and jaundice. Generally, gallstones are of two types. These include: 

  • Cholesterol stones 

  • Pigment stones

Cholesterol stones have a yellow or green tint. Whereas, some pigment stones made up of bilirubin are usually brown. In some cases, patients may have both of these stones at one time. 

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Hepatitis B core antibodies (anti-HBc Ab) appear shortly after the onset of symptoms of hepatitis B infection and soon after the appearance of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg). Initially, anti-HBc Ab consist almost entirely of the IgM class, followed by appearance of anti-HBc IgG, for which there is no commercial diagnostic assay.


The anti-HBc total antibodies test, which detects both IgM and IgG antibodies, and the test for anti-HBc IgM antibodies may be the only markers of a recent hepatitis B infection detectable in the "window period." The window period begins with the clearance of HBsAg and ends with the appearance of antibodies to hepatitis B surface antigen (anti-HBs Ab). Anti-HBc total Ab may be the only serologic marker remaining years after exposure to hepatitis B.

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Hepatitis B is a liver infection caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). It is one of several various causes of hepatitis, a condition characteriszed by inflammation and enlargement of the liver. Other causes of hepatitis include, for example, certain drugs, inherited disorders, and autoimmune diseases. HBV is one of five "hepatitis viruses" identified so far. The other four are A, C, D, and E. 


The course of HBV infections can vary from a mild form (acute) that lasts only a few weeks to a more serious, chronic, form lasting years. Sometimes chronic HBV leads to serious complications such as cirrhosis or liver cancer. 


HBV is spread through contact with blood or other body fluids from an infected person. Exposure can occur, for example, through sharing of needles for IV drug use or through unprotected sex. People who live in or travel to areas of the world where hepatitis B is prevalent are at a greater risk. Mothers can pass the infection to their babies, usually during or after birth. The virus, however, is not spread through food or water, casual contact such as holding hands, or coughing or sneezing.

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This test measures the actual amount of hepatitis B in a blood sample, which helps determine whether HBV is reproducing in the liver. In a person with detectable HBeAg, an HBV viral load greater than 20,000 international units per milliliter (IU/mL) of blood indicates that the virus is active and has the greatest potential to cause damage to the liver. Similarly, in a person with an HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B, an HBV viral load of greater than 2,000 IU/mL indicates that the virus is active and has the potential to cause damage to the liver. Generally speaking, if the HBV viral load is above these numbers, treatment is considered necessary. However, HBV treatment decisions are based on multiple factors, and your medical provider may make recommendations based on other input.

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HBeAg is the hepatitis B envelope antigen, and anti-HBe are the antibodies produced against this antigen. If HBeAg is detectable in a blood sample, this means that the virus is still active in the liver (and can be transmitted to others). If HBeAg is negative and anti-HBe is positive, this generally means that the virus is inactive. However, this is not always the case. Some people with chronic hepatitis—especially those who have been infected with HBV for many years—may have what is known as a precore or core variant mutated form of HBV. This can cause HBeAg to be negative and anti-HBe to be positive, even though the virus is still active in the liver.

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Often used as a marker of ability to spread the virus to other people (infectivity); it may also be used to monitor the effectiveness of treatment. However, there are some types (strains) of HBV that do not make e-antigen; these are especially common in the Middle East and Asia. In areas where these strains of HBV are common, testing for HBeAg is not very useful to determine whether the virus can be spread to others.

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An HCV antibody test is typically reported as "positive" or "negative."


Results of HCV viral load testing are reported as a number if virus is present. If no virus is present or if the amount of virus is too low to detect, the result is often reported as "negative" or "not detected."


Interpretation of the HCV screening and follow-up tests is shown in the table below. In general, if the HCV antibody test is positive, then the individual tested is infected or has likely been infected at some time with hepatitis C. If the HCV RNA test is positive, then the person has a current infection. If no HCV viral RNA is detected, then the person either does not have an active infection or the virus is present in very low numbers.


For monitoring purposes, an HCV viral load (HCV RNA quantitative) can indicate whether or not treatment is effective. A high or increasing viral load may be a sign that treatment is not successful whereas a low, decreasing, or undetectable viral load may imply that the treatment is working.


Successful treatment causes a decrease of 99% or more in viral load soon after starting treatment (as early as 2-4 weeks) and usually leads to undetectable viral load after treatment is completed. According to guidelines from the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases and the Infectious Disease Society of America, an undetectable viral load in a treated person's blood 12 weeks after the end of the treatment means that the HCV infection has responded to therapy.

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The qualitative HCV RNA tests use either a process called polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or a process called transcription-mediated amplification (TMA). Either type of qualitative test will report whether the hepatitis C virus is present in the bloodstream or not. The result is reported as either "detected" or "not detected."

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Hepatitis E virus (HEV) causes an acute, usually self-limited infection. This small, non-enveloped RNA virus is from animal reservoir (eg, hogs) to humans via the fecal-oral route. HEV is endemic in Southeast and Central Asia, with several outbreaks observed in the Middle East, northern and western parts of Africa, and Mexico. In developed countries, HEV infection occurs mainly in persons who have traveled to disease-endemic areas. Transmission of HEV may also occur parenterally, and direct person-to-person transmission is rare. Clinically severe cases occur in young to middle-aged adults. Unusually high mortality (approximately 20%) occurs in patients infected during the third trimester of pregnancy. Although there is no carrier state associated with HEV, immunocompromised patients may have prolonged periods (eg, months) of viremia and virus shedding in the stool.


In immunocompetent patients, viremia and virus shedding in the stool occur in the preicteric phase, lasting up to 10 days into the clinical phase. After an incubation period ranging from 15 to 60 days, HEV-infected patients develop symptoms of hepatitis with appearance of anti-HEV IgM antibody in serum, followed by detectable anti-HEV IgG within a few days. Anti-HEV IgM may remain detectable up to 6 months after onset of symptoms, while anti-HEV IgG usually persists for many years after infection. Anti-HEV IgM is the serologic marker of choice for diagnosis of acute HEV infection.

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This assay is useful for diagnosis of Acute Hepatitis B infection. It identifies Acute HBV infection in the core window period when HBsAg and Anti HBs are negative. It also differentiates between acute and chronic HBV infection in the presence of positive Anti HBc

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Hepatitis B tests detect substances that reflect a current or previous infection with hepatitis B virus (HBV). Some tests detect viral proteins (antigens) or the antibodies that are produced in response to an infection, while other types of tests detect or evaluate the genetic material (DNA) of the virus. The pattern of test results can identify a person who has a current active infection or one who has immunity as a result of previous exposure.

For details on the various tests, see the table under "How is it used?"

Hepatitis is a condition characterized by inflammation and enlargement of the liver. It has several various causes, one of which is infection by a virus. HBV is one of five "hepatitis viruses" identified so far that are known to mainly infect the liver. The other four are hepatitis A, hepatitis C, hepatitis D, and hepatitis E.

HBV is spread through contact with blood or other body fluids from an infected person. Exposure can occur, for example, through sharing of needles for IV drug use or through unprotected sex. People who live in or travel to areas of the world where hepatitis B is prevalent are at a greater risk. Rarely, mothers can pass the infection to their babies, usually during or after birth. The virus is not spread through casual contact such as holding hands, coughing or sneezing. However, the virus can survive outside the body for up to seven days, including in dried blood, and can be passed by sharing items such as razors or toothbrushes with an infected person.

Effective hepatitis B vaccines have been available in the U.S. since 1981, and beginning in 1991, health care providers in the U.S. began vaccinating infants at birth. Still, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that between 804,000 and 1.4 million people in the U.S. are infected with the virus, most of whom are not aware that they are infected.

The course of HBV infections can vary from a mild form that lasts only a few weeks to a more serious chronic form lasting years. Sometimes chronic HBV leads to serious complications such as cirrhosis or liver cancer. Some of the various stages or forms of hepatitis B include:

  • Acute infection — presence of typical signs and symptoms with a positive screening test
  • Chronic infection — persistent infection with the virus detected by laboratory tests accompanied by inflammation of the liver
  • Carrier (inactive) state — persistent infection but no liver inflammation (a carrier is someone who may appear to be in good health but harbors the virus and can potentially infect others)
  • "Cleared" infection — no longer has any evidence of infection; viral antigen and DNA tests are negative and no signs or symptoms of liver inflammation (although, in many cases, the virus is present in an inactive state in the liver)
  • Reactivation — return of HBV infection with liver damage in a person who was a carrier or who had "cleared" infection; this most commonly occurs in persons treated with chemotherapy for cancer or with drugs that suppress the immune system used to treat autoimmune diseasesor following an organ transplant.

Though a potentially serious infection, acute HBV infection usually resolves on its own in most adults. Infants and children tend to develop a chronic infection more often than adults. Approximately 90% of infants infected with HBV will develop a chronic condition. For children between the ages of one and five, the risk of developing chronic hepatitis drops to between 25% and 50%. Over the age of five, only 6% to 10% of HBV infections become chronic.

The vast majority of those with chronic infections will have no symptoms. For acute infections, the symptoms are very similar to those of other types of acute hepatitis. Symptoms include fever, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, and jaundice. With acute hepatitis, the liver is damaged and is not able to function normally. It may not process toxins or waste products such as bilirubin for their removal from the body. During the course of disease, bilirubin and liver enzyme levels in the blood may increase. While tests such as bilirubin or a liver panel can tell a health practitioner that someone has hepatitis, they will not indicate what is causing it. Tests that detect infection with a hepatitis virus may help determine the cause.

Hepatitis B testing can be used to screen for infection in the absence of symptoms, to determine whether infection is acute or chronic, or to monitor a chronic infection and the effectiveness of treatment. Initial testing may include the following, often performed together as a panel of tests:

  • Hepatitis B surface antigen
  • Hepatitis B surface antibody
  • Total hepatitis B core antibody (IgM and IgG)

Additional or follow-up testing may include:

  • IgM antibody to hepatitis B core antigen
  • Hepatitis B e-antigen
  • Anti-hepatitis B e antibody
  • Hepatitis B viral DNA
  • Hepatitis B genotyping

Two tests, hepatitis B surface Ag and hepatitis B core antibody, IgM, may be performed as part of an acute viral hepatitis panel.



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The human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) gene is responsible for producing HER2 proteins. HER2 proteins are receptors that are present on some breast cancer cells. When they’re activated, these receptors signal breast cancer cells to divide and multiply. Normally, HER2 receptors regulate and control the growth of breast cells, keeping them at a healthy level.

However, the HER2 gene is overexpressed in about one in every five cases of breast cancer. This means that instead of having one copy of the gene from each parent, you have multiple HER2 genes. When this occurs, it’s known as HER2 gene amplification

These additional genes then make too many HER2 receptors. This is known as HER2 protein receptor overexpression. Too many genes and too many receptors cause breast cells to grow and divide in an uncontrolled manner. This can lead to aggressive tumor growth.


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Herpes simplex virus or HSV (family Herpesviridae) is a transmittable and infectous virus usually triggered by two strains of the herpes simplex virus, type 1 (HSV-1) and type 2 (HSV-2). HSV-1 normally affects the mouth and lips in the form of cold sores, whereas HSV-2 is more common and usually perceptible in the genital and anal area. HSV is very easily transmittable and infectous and is transmitted through contact with an infected person who produces it and sheds the virus. It could spread by direct contact with sores or occassionally by contact with the oral and genital areas of people with chronic HSV infection, who are between episodes of sores.Contamination with the herpes virus is classified by clearly distinguished disorders based on where the infection is like infection of the face, throat, and mouth, hands, eye, the central nervous system, brain, buttocks or anal area and the genitals. Ressurection of a latent oral or genital HSV contamination could set off by a fever, menstruation, emotional stress, or suppression of the immune system (for example, by a drug taken to prevent rejection of an organ transplant). An episode of the HSV infection could break out after physical trauma, like a dental procedure or overexposure of the lips to sunlight. Often, the set off is unknown. Once infected, the virus remains in the body for life and can keep recurring.


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Histamine is an important neurotransmitter and immune messenger molecule.  It is involved in processes involving hydrochloric acid secretion for digestion, triaging water reserves to key areas of the body and the inflammatory response One of the major effects of histamine is causing the blood vessels to swell and dilate.  When the body senses that it is threatened it will secrete higher amounts of histamine.   This allows the white blood cells to quickly move through the blood stream and find the potential threat or infection.  This is an important component to a healthy immune response. 

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Histones are proteins present in the nucleus. The genetic material, chromatin, is wrapped around histones. Anti-histone antibodies are a type of antinuclear antibodies, which are autoimmune antibodies. The production of anti-histone antibodies can be stimulated by certain drugs such as isoniazid, quinidine, anticonvulsants, thyroid medications and hydralazine. This may lead to an autoimmune disorder called drug induced lupus erythematous. The test for anti-histone antibodies is used to distinguish this form of lupus from systemic lupus erythematous. 


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Infection with Histoplasma capsulatum occurs commonly in areas in the Midwestern United States and Central America, but symptomatic disease requiring medical care is manifest in very few patients. The extent of disease depends on the number of conidia inhaled and the function of the host's cellular immune system. Pulmonary infection is the primary manifestation of histoplasmosis, varying from mild pneumonitis to severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. In those with emphysema, a chronic progressive form of histoplasmosis can ensue. Dissemination of H. capsulatum within macrophages is common and becomes symptomatic primarily in patients with defects in cellular immunity. The spectrum of disseminated infection includes acute, severe, life-threatening sepsis and chronic, slowly progressive infection. Diagnostic accuracy has improved greatly with the use of an assay for Histoplasma antigen in the urine; serology remains useful for certain forms of histoplasmosis, and culture is the ultimate confirming diagnostic test. Classically, histoplasmosis has been treated with long courses of amphotericin B. Today, amphotericin B is rarely used except for severe infection and then only for a few weeks, followed by azole therapy. Itraconazole is the azole of choice following initial amphotericin B treatment and for primary treatment of mild to moderate histoplasmosis.


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As part of your HIV care, your provider will order several laboratory tests. The results of these lab tests, along with your physical exam and other information you provide, will help you and your provider work together to develop the best plan to manage your HIV care so that you can get the virus under control, protect your health, and reduce the chance that you will pass the virus to others.Your healthcare provider will repeat some of these tests as part of your ongoing HIV care to continue to assess your health and how well your HIV treatment is working.


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Human leukocyte antigen B27 (HLA-B27) is a protein located on the surface of your white blood cells. An HLA-B27 test is a blood test that identifies HLA-B27 proteins.Human leukocyte antigens (HLAs) are proteins commonly found on white blood cells. These antigens help your immune system identify the differences between healthy body tissue and foreign substances that may cause infection

Although most HLAs protect your body from harm, HLA-B27 is a specific type of protein that contributes to immune system dysfunction. The presence of HLA-B27 on your white blood cells can cause your immune system to attack those otherwise healthy cells. When this occurs, it can result in an autoimmune disease or immune-mediated disease, such as juvenile rheumatoid arthritis or ankylosing spondylitis.


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The HLA gene products can be grouped into three classes. Class I consists of the products of the genes located on the HLA-A, HLA-B, and HLA-C loci. These HLA antigens are found on all nucleated cells. Class II molecules consist of antigens inherited as genes from the HLA-DR, HLA-DQ, and HLA-DP loci. These HLA antigens are normally found only on B-lymphocytes, macrophages, monocytes, dendritic cells, endothelial cells, and activated T-lymphocytes. Class III molecules are not evaluated in histocompatibility testing.Because the HLA loci are closely linked, the HLA antigens are inherited as a group of six antigens is called a haplotype. The probability of siblings having identical haplotypes is one in four. Therefore, siblings provide the opportunity for the best matches. They can donate bone marrow, a kidney, and a section of their livers, but they cannot donate other solid organs. Approximately 85% of transplants are organs from cadavers, and because the HLA antigens are so highly polymorphic, the chance of identical haplotypes decreases quickly.

Histocompatibility testing consists of three tests, HLA antigen typing (tissue typing), screening of the recipient for anti-HLA antibodies (antibody screen), and the lymphocyte crossmatch (compatibility test). HLA antigen typing may be performed by serological or DNA methodsA laboratory will perform HLA typing by either the serological (blood fluid) or DNA method. In either case, HLA typing of HLA-A, HLA-B, HLA-DR, and HLADQ antigens is performed for solid organ transplants. HLA typing of HLA-C antigens is also included when tissue typing is performed for bone marrow transplantsThe antibody screen is performed in order to detect antibodies in the recipient's serum that react with HLA antigens. The most commonly used method of HLA antibody screening is the microcytotoxicity test. If an antibody against an HLA antigen is present, it will bind to the cells. The higher the number of different HLA antibodies, the lower the probability of finding a compatible matchThe third component of a histocompatibility study is the crossmatch test. In this test peripheral blood lymphocytes from the donor are separated into B and T lymphocyte populations. In the crossmatch, serum from the recipient is mixed with T-cells or B-cells from the donor. A positive finding indicates the presence of preformed antibodies in the recipient that are reactive against the donor tissues. An incompatible T-cell crossmatch contraindicates transplantation of a tissue from the T-cell donor.


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Homocysteine is an amino acid that is produced by the body by chemically altering adenosine. Amino acids are naturally made products, which are the building blocks of all the proteins in the body. In 1969, Dr. Kilmer S. McCully reported that children born with a genetic disorder called homocystinuria, which causes the homocysteine levels to be very high, sometimes died at a very young age with advanced atherosclerosis in their arteries. Homocysteine levels in the blood may be elevated for many reasons. More specifically, these reasons can be divided into severe genetic causes and other milder causes.


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This test looks for antibodies which the body develops in response to infection with the Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus (HTLV).  HTLV infects white blood cells which are important to the body’s immune system.  HTLV infection can be responsible for the development of a number of conditions including Leukemia, Lymphoma, and nervous system disorders.  The HTLV 1&2 Abs test detects and differentiates both type 1 and type 2 HTLV infections. An estimated 15-20 million people worldwide suffer from HTLV infections.  HTLV is typically spread through sexual contact and exposure to infected blood, especially through intravenous drug use.  Infected mothers can spread the infection to their infants during pregnancy or breast feeding.  After infection, HTLV will remain in the body for life.  Some people will develop HTLV related illnesses months or years after their initial exposure.  Most HTLV infections show no symptoms.  An infected person can spread the virus to others even if they are asymptomatic. 


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Gas – Everyone has it, no matter how small or big we are. We eliminate it by burping or passing it on the other end.  Passing gas 14 to 23 times a day is normal for both adults and children. Even though it is entirely natural and unavoidable, it can be embarrassing.  Furthermore, when gas does not pass easily, pain often results…upset stomach, bloating and cramping.

Children are particularly susceptible to discomfort caused by gas as their delicate digestive systems develop and learn to move gas through their digestive tracts effectively.  Understanding causes, ways to reduce symptoms and treatment will help most find relief. If a child has persistently painful or extreme gassiness, it should be brought to the attention of your doctor, as it could be the sign of a more serious medical problem.


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Despite the morbidity associated with anogenital condylomas and the mortality associated with anal, penile, and cervical carcinoma as a direct consequence of human papillomavirus (HPV), the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention currently does not recommend routine screening for HPV in immuno competent men. However, findings of emerging research focusing on the high-risk populations of men who have sex with men and men who test positive for human immunodeficiency virus, in whom HPV infection is pervasive and persistent, suggest that these populations may benefit from screening. Therefore, HPV screening, including anal cytology, should be considered for these men in settings where appropriate follow-up, including high-resolution anoscopy, is available.

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There are several serological tests used to diagnose Hydatiddisease.Routine tests include indirect hemagglutination (IHA)andImmunoelectrophoresis (IEP). The sensitivity of IHA in calcified or lunglesions is 60%, and 88% in peritoneal or liver disease, with a specificityof 90-95% (1-2).IEP is regarded as an highly specific test, but crossreactivity could be with other infections such as Taenia SoliumCysticercosis )or rarely in liver cirrhosis or cancer (cross reactivitywith P1 antigen)(3).Our practice is to combine the tests, because of itslow sensitivity. IEP test will be positive for Antigen 5 (arc 5)usualywith a titer of 1:512 in IHA test. Inlower titer, IEP will be positiveonly in 13% of patients (3).Recently, more advanced serological tests are used. ELISA test withsensitivity and specificity of 84% and 96.6% respectively,or Westernblotting (IB-Immunoblot). There are several diagnostic antigens in IBtest. The first antigen was of 8 kDa , with a described sensitivity andspecificity of 91% and 100% respectively (4). Since this report, manyother antigens were described using the IB test. Basicly, the two majorantigens are the thermolabile Antigen A ( antigen 5)which is composed oftwo subunits of 38-40 and 20 kDa, and the thermostable Antigen B whichis composed of 3 antigens of 8-12, 16 and 23-24 kDa (5). The cellularImuune response can also be tested by a lymphoproliferative assay (blasttransformation) which is a very sensitive test used to diagnose thedisease in seronegative patients (5).


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This test measures the amount of immunoglobulins A, G, and M in the blood and, in certain circumstances, in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) . There are numerous conditions and diseases that can cause increased or decreased production of immunoglobulins (Igs).Immunoglobulins play a key role in the body's immune system. They are proteins produced by specific immune cells (plasma cells and B-cells) in response to bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms as well as substances that are recognized as "non-self" and harmful antigens. The first time a person is infected or otherwise exposed to a foreign substance (antigen), their immune system recognises the microorganism or substance as "non-self" and stimulates cells to produce specific immunoglobulin(s) or antibodies that can bind to and neutralise the threat. With subsequent exposures, the immune system "remembers" the antigen that was encountered, which allows for the rapid production of more antibodies and helps prevent re-infection.There are five classes of immunoglobulins and several subclasses. Each class represents a group of antibodies and has a slightly different role. Classes of immunoglobulins include:


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An IgA test measures the blood level of immunoglobulin A, one of the most common antibodies in the body. Antibodies are proteins made by the immune system to fight bacteria, viruses, and toxins.IgA is found in high concentrations in the body's mucous membranes, particularly the respiratory passages and gastrointestinal tract, as well as in saliva and tears. IgA also plays a role in allergic reactions. IgA levels also may be high in autoimmune conditions, disorders in which the body mistakenly makes antibodies against healthy tissues.

 

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This test measures the amount of Immunoglobulin E (IgE) in the blood.   Immunoglobulin E is a type of antibody produced by the body during an allergic reaction.  IgE levels are normally very low.  During exposure to an allergen, the immune system of the allergic person creates IgE which triggers typical allergy symptoms such as red itchy skin, runny nose, itchy eyes and difficulty breathing.  Measuring IgE levels can help determine if a person may have an allergic disease including asthma although it cannot identify a specific allergen.  IgE can also be elevated when a person has a parasitic infection.   


A Total IgE test is typically ordered when a person is experiencing symptoms associated with a parasitic infection or allergic reaction, especially if they do not know what they may be allergic to.  The test is usually taken shortly after or while someone is experiencing symptoms such as persistent itching, hives, itchy eyes, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, sneezing, coughing, congestion or difficulty breathing.  This test is usually accompanied by or followed with testing for specific allergens. 

 

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 This test measures the level of Immunoglobulin G (IgG) Antibodies in the blood.  IgG are the smallest and most common type of antibody making up 75-80% of all antibodies in the body.  IgG antibodies are found in all body fluids and play a key role in fighting infections from bacteria and viruses. High IgG levels may indicate that a person has a chronic infection such as HIV or Hepatitis.  They can also be high due to conditions such as Multiple Sclerosis, some types of cancer and autoimmune disorders.  Low IgG levels can be found in people with kidney damage, leukemia and conditions which weaken the immune system leaving them more susceptible to infections. IgG test results cannot indicate the specific type or source of an infection.  More specific testing may be needed as a follow up to abnormal results.  An IgG test may be ordered when someone is suffering from frequent infections to see if they have a condition which is impairing their immune system. 


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The gamma-globulin band as seen in conventional serum protein electrophoresis consists of 5 immunoglobulins. In normal serum, about 5% is immunoglobulin M (IgM)Elevations of IgM may be due to polyclonal immunoglobulin production. Monoclonal elevations of IgM occur in macroglobulinemia.Monoclonal gammopathies of all types may lead to a spike in the gamma-globulin zone seen on serum protein electrophoresis.Decreased immunoglobulin levels are found in patients with congenital deficiencies.


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The inhibin A test is done to measure the amount of this hormone in a pregnant woman's blood to see if the baby may have Down syndrome. Inhibin A is made by the placenta during pregnancy. The level of inhibin A in the blood is used in a maternal serum quadruple screening test. Generally done between 15 and 20 weeks, this test checks the levels of four substances in a pregnant woman's blood. The quad screen checks alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), a type of estrogen (unconjugated estriol, or uE3), and the hormone inhibin A. The levels of these substances-along with a woman's age and other factors-help the doctor estimate the chance that the baby may have certain problems or birth defects.


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Inhibin is a hormone secreted by granulosa cells in the ovarian follicles and by Sertoli cells in the testis. Its physiological role is to suppress secretion of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) by the pituitary.Inhibin exists as two different isoforms, inhibin A and inhibin B. Both isoforms are comprised of 2 subunits, the alpha and beta subunits. The alpha subunit is the same for both inhibin A and B, but the beta subunit differs. Inhibin A contains a beta-A subunit and inhibin B contains a beta-B subunit. Plasma levels of inhibin A and B fluctuate during the menstrual cycle. At menopause, serum inhibin A and B decrease to very low or undetectable levels.


Ninety five percent of ovarian cancers are derived from epithelial cells. The remaining 5% are germ cell and sex cord-stromal tumors. Inhibin A is elevated up to 6 times the upper limit of the reference range in approximately 70% of granulosa cell tumors. Inhibin A is also elevated in about 20% of patients with epithelial tumors of the mucinous type. Inhibin is a better tumor marker for these two types of ovarian cancer than cancer antigen 125 (CA 125). Inhibin A is most useful as a tumor marker in postmenopausal women, because plasma levels are normally very low. Inhibin A levels are much harder to interpret in premenopausal women, because plasma levels are higher and fluctuate throughout the menstrual cycle. Because of its low sensitivity, a normal inhibin A level does not rule-out a mucinous or granulosa ovarian cell tumor. Inhibin B might be elevated in these cases.


Inhibin A level decreases shortly after surgery for ovarian cancer. Patients in remission have normal levels of inhibin A. Elevations of inhibin A after treatment are suggestive of residual or recurrent disease. Inhibin A may become elevated prior to onset of clinical symptoms. Inhibin A levels are increased in normal pregnancy, preeclampsia and Down syndrome.Specimen requirement is blood collected into a red top tube. Reference range using a Beckman Coulter Unicel chemiluminescent assay is <2.1 pg/mL for males, <97.5 pg/mL for premenopausal females and <6.9 pg/mL for postmenopausal females. 


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Insulin is produced by the pancreas and used by the body to transport and convert glucose throughout the body into usable energy. Issues with the pancreas including diabetes or a pancreatic tumor can prevent the pancreas from producing the correct amount of insulin to maintain proper glucose levels. Too much insulin causes hypoglycemia, or low glucose levels, while too little, or resistance to, insulin, which is often caused by type 2 diabetes, leads to extremely high levels of glucose. Either situation can lead to severe health issues.Excess insulin production may be due to an insulin producing tumor (insulinoma) and can cause low glucose levels leading to convulsions or loss of consciousness. Acute or chronic symptoms of low blood sugar include sweating, confusion, blurred vision, hunger, fainting or heart palpitations.


Insulin resistance, which is associated with type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome, prediabetes, heart disease and polycystic ovarian syndrome (POCS), can lead to extremely high glucose levels in the body. Long term blood sugar levels that are too high cause severe health problems associated with both type 1 and type 2 diabetes including blindness, neuropathy that can lead to foot and leg amputations and cardiovascular disease. The pancreatic system in those with prediabetes or type 2 diabetes becomes damaged over time and is unable to utilize insulin properly. Known as insulin resistance, this condition can be improved with diet and lifestyle changes but may ultimately require injectable insulin.


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Gastritis commonly refers to inflammation of the lining of the stomach, but the term is often used to cover a variety of symptoms resulting from stomach lining inflammation and symptoms of burning or discomfort. True gastritis comes in several forms and is diagnosed using a combination of tests. In the 1990s, scientists discovered that the main cause of true gastritis is infection from a bacterium called Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori).


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Context: Autoantibodies to glutamate decarboxylase, islet antigen-2, insulin, and zinc transporter-8 are characteristic of type 1 diabetes. They are detectable before clinical onset and define the subgroup of patients with latent autoimmune diabetes in adults. Autoantibody assays are increasingly available to clinicians. This article reviews the prognostic significance of autoantibodies and considers the utility of diabetes antibody testing in routine clinical practice.Evidence Acquisition: The medical literature to May 2009 was reviewed for key articles and consensus statements covering use of islet autoantibody testing for prediction and classification of diabetes and implications for therapy.Evidence Synthesis: Sensitive and specific glutamate decarboxylase and islet antigen-2 antibody assays are widely available, although to insulin autoantibody assays remain variable. Islet autoantibodies appear early in life, and testing for multiple antibodies identifies unaffected individuals at very high risk of type 1 diabetes with high sensitivity. This is important for research, but currently no intervention prevents or delays diabetes, and evidence of benefit from awareness of risk is weak. In non-insulin-treated diabetes, patients with autoantibodies progress to insulin requirement more rapidly, but evidence that testing benefits the individual patient is limited. Antibody testing is useful in classifying diabetes of other types.Conclusions: Islet autoantibody testing allows prediction of type 1 diabetes and definition of the latent autoimmune diabetes in adults subgroup of non-insulin-treated patients. Although useful for research, until therapies modulating the disease process become available, the benefit to individual patients is generally questionable. With a few exceptions, diabetes antibody testing does not yet have a role in routine clinical care.


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The cobalamins, also referred to as vitamin B12, are a group of closely related enzymatic cofactors involved in the conversion of methylmalonyl-coenzyme A to succinyl-coenzyme A and in the synthesis of methionine from homocysteine. Vitamin B12 deficiency can lead to megaloblastic anemia and neurological deficits. The latter may exist without anemia, or precede it. Adequate replacement therapy will generally improve or cure cobalamin deficiency. Unfortunately, many other conditions, which require different interventions, can mimic the symptoms and signs of vitamin B12 deficiency. Moreover, even when cobalamin deficiency has been established, clinical improvement may require different dosages or routes of vitamin B12 replacement, depending on the underlying cause. In particular, patients with pernicious anemia (PA), possibly the commonest type of cobalamin deficiency in developed countries, require either massive doses of oral vitamin B12 or parenteral replacement therapy. The reason is that in PA patients suffer from gastric mucosal atrophy, most likely caused by a destructive autoimmune process. This results in diminished or absent gastric acid, pepsin and intrinsic factor (IF) production. Gastric acid and pepsin are required for liberation of cobalamin from binding proteins, while IF binds the free vitamin B12, carries it to receptors on the ileal mucosa, and facilitates its absorption. Most PA patients have autoantibodies against gastric parietal cells or intrinsic factor, with the latter being very specific but only present in approximately 50% of cases. By contrast, parietal cell antibodies are found in approximately 90% of PA patients, but are also found in a significant proportion of patients with other autoimmune diseases, and in approximately 2.5% (4th decade of life) to approximately 10% (8th decade of life) of healthy individuals.


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Autoimmune diseases cause the body to attack itself, which leads to inflammation and results in damage to muscles, tissues, and organs. The inflammation produces antibodies in the blood that can be measured and the levels used to diagnose specific autoimmune diseases. Type I diabetes mellitus (DM) is an autoimmune disease, where the body attacks the pancreatic cells that produce insulin (islet cells). High ICA levels can be measured a number of years before clinical signs of diabetes are seen, and this test is a very helpful tool your doctor may use to prevent the disease or to better manage the onset, as well as to provide a proper diet and treatment. ICA testing must be done before any insulin therapy is started, since this will cause elevations in this antibody in the blood.ICA tests are ordered to diagnose Type I diabetes mellitus (DM), insulin allergy, insulin resistance; or to monitor your condition after a pancreas transplant.


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Hypoperfusion is the most common cause of lactic acidosis and hyperlactacidemia may be the only marker of tissue hypoperfusion.1 Suspect lactic acidosis when unexplained anion gap metabolic acidosis is encountered, especially if azotemia or ketoacidosis are not present. Evaluate metabolic acidosis, regional or diffuse tissue hypoperfusion, hypoxia, shock,2 congestive heart failure, dehydration, complicated postoperative state, ketoacidosis or nonketotic acidosis in diabetes mellitus, patients with infections, inflammatory states, postictal state, certain myopathies, acute leukemia and other neoplasia, enzyme defects, glycogen storage disease (type I), thiamine deficiency, and hepatic failure. A spontaneous form of lactic acidosis occurs. It is a prognostic index in particular clinical settings, especially in critically ill patients in shock.3 A relationship to renal disease also exists. With skin rash, seizures, alopecia, ataxia, keratoconjunctivitis, and lactic acidosis in children, consider defective biotin metabolism.4 Phenformin, ethanol, methanol, and salicylate poisoning and ethylene glycol may cause lactic acidosis. Acetaminophen toxicity causes lactic acidosis, sometimes with hypoglycemia. Cyanide, isoniazid, and propylene glycol are among the causes of lactic acidosis.1 Lactic acidosis may be due to inborn errors of metabolism.

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The lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) test looks for signs of damage to the body’s tissues. LDH is an enzyme found in almost every cell of your body, including your blood, muscles, brain, kidneys, and pancreas.The enzyme turns sugar into energy.  The LDH test measures the amount of LDH in your blood or other body fluid.When cells are damaged or destroyed, this enzyme is released into the fluid portion of blood. Doctors call this “serum” or “plasma.” LDH can also be released into other body fluid, including cerebrospinal fluid, which surrounds your brain and spinal cord.


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Cholesterol is a soft, wax-like substance found in all parts of the body. Your body needs a little bit of cholesterol to work properly. But too much cholesterol can clog your arteries and lead to heart diseaseCholesterol blood tests are done to help you and your health care provider better understand your risk for heart disease, stroke, and other problems caused by narrowed or blocked arteries. The ideal values for all cholesterol results depend on whether you have heart disease, diabetes, or other risk factors. Your provider can tell you what your goal should be  Some cholesterol is considered good and some is considered bad. Different blood tests can be done to measure each type of cholesterol. Your provider may order only a total cholesterol level as the first test. It measures all types of cholesterol in your blood.

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Lupus erythematosus (LE) cell testing was once performed to diagnose systemic lupus erythematous but has been replaced for this purpose by antinuclear antibody testing.

Negative findings on LE cell testing exclude a diagnosis of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).

The presence of LE cells indicates lupus.

A smear is considered positive when 10 or more characteristic LE cells are seen during a 15-minute search, associated with the presence of extracellular, amorphous, nuclear masses.

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There are two types of pregnancy tests; one uses a urine sample, the other a sample of blood. Both tests detect the presence of a hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). This hormone is produced by the placenta shortly after the embryo attaches to the uterine lining and builds up rapidly in your body in the first few days of pregnancy. It is this rapid shift in hormones that triggers most of your pregnancy symptoms.

URINE TEST  :-Urine tests can be performed in two different ways and these can be performed at home or in a clinic. One way involves collecting your urine in a cup and dipping a stick into the urine or putting urine into a special container with an eyedropper. Another option involves placing a stick into your urine stream and catching your urine in midstream.

Tests vary in how long you have to wait to get a result. You will be looking for a change in color, a line, or a symbol (like a plus or minus). The newer digital pregnancy test offered by Clearblue Easy makes reading your results simple: the window will either show the words “not pregnant” or “pregnant”.


BLOOD TEST:- There are two types of blood tests. A quantitative blood test measures the exact amount of hCG in the blood, and a qualitative hCG blood test gives a simple yes or no answer to whether you are pregnant or not.


Advantages of having a blood test done:

1.Can detect a pregnancy earlier than a urine test at about 7-12 days from possible conception (but if a negative result is received, a test should be repeated if a period is missed.)

2.Can measure the concentration of hCG hormone in your blood (this is useful information for your healthcare provider in tracking certain problems in pregnancy)


Disadvantages to having a blood test done:

1.More expensive than a urine test (price depends on cost of doctor’s visit and lab fees)

2.Takes longer to get result

3.Must be done in a doctor’s office.


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n addition to a complete blood cell count, the principal studies used to establish the diagnosis of paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH) are flow cytometry of peripheral blood and bone marrow analysis. Flow cytometry measures the percentage of cells that are deficient in the glycosyl phosphatidylinositol–anchored proteins (GPI-APs) and identifies discrete populations with different degrees of deficiency. Because of the missing GPI-APs, red blood cells (RBCs) and other cells in patients with PNH lack DAF (CD55) and MIRL (CD59), which regulate complement. Hemosiderin is nearly always present in the urine sediment and can accumulate in the kidneys; this is visible on magnetic resonance images (MRI) or computed tomography (CT) scans. An elevated reticulocyte count and serum lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) level with a low serum haptoglobin level in the absence of hepatosplenomegaly are the hallmarks of intravascular hemolysis.Bone marrow examination will differentiate classic PNH from PNH that develops in the setting of other bone marrow disorders. In addition, bone marrow examination will identify an erythroid and hyperplastic bone marrow during the hemolytic phase or a hypoplastic bone marrow in the aplastic phase.


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The Lead Blood (Adult) test is used to monitor exposure to Lead in people age 16 and older. Lead and organic lead compounds are found in a number of industrial products including paints, plastics, storage batteries, bearing alloys, insecticides, and ceramics. Exposure may also occur through the inhalation of dust containing lead emitted by automobile exhaust and the discharging of firearms. This test is commonly ordered when someone is concerned about occupational or environmental lead exposure.  It is frequently used by people who work for or patronize shooting ranges.  This test is not appropriate for people under the age of 16.


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Gastroenteritis is an inflammation of the digestive tract, particularly the stomach, and large and small intestines. Viral and bacterial gastroenteritis are intestinal infections associated with symptoms of diarrhea , abdominal cramps, nausea , and vomiting .


Gastroenteritis is an uncomfortable and inconvenient ailment, but is rarely life-threatening in the United States and other developed nations. Viral gastroenteritis is frequently referred to as the stomach or intestinal flu, although the influenza virus is not associated with this illness.

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Lead poisoning through chronic exposure is characterized by gastrointestinal disturbance, anemia, insomnia, weight loss, motor weakness, muscle paralysis, and neuropathy. Ingestion of large quantities may produce death Increased urinary lead excretion indicates excessive lead exposure, regardless of clinical presentation. Erythrocyte protoporphyrin and whole blood lead levels are probably more sensitive indicators of excessive lead exposure. In cases of borderline blood levels, an EDTA lead mobilization test may be considered. Chelation therapy monitoring may be indicated. Lead and organic lead compounds have numerous commercial and industrial applications, use in paints, plastics, storage batteries, bearing alloys, insecticides, and ceramics. Exposure may also occur through the inhalation of dust containing lead emitted by automobile exhausts. A common source of lead exposure among children is derived through the mouthing of inanimate objects, specifically objects with paint and paint chips that contain lead. Acute lead exposure is rare; however, toxicity may occur through acute ingestion of a lead salt or acetate. Urine is suggested specimen in which chronic lead poisoning may be monitored.  BEI® are reference values intended as guidelines for evaluation of occupational exposure. BEI® represent biological levels of chemicals that correspond to workers with inhalation exposure equivalent to the threshold limit value (TLV®) of the chemicals. TLVs refer to the airborne concentrations of substances and represent conditions under which it is believed that nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed, day after day, without adverse health effects.


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Visceral leishmaniasis (kala azar) is a disseminated intracellular protozoal infection that targets primarily the reticuloendothelial system (liver, spleen, bone marrow) and is caused by Leishmania donovani, Leishmania chagasi, or Leishmania infantum (Leishmania donovani complex).  Transmission is by the bite of sandflies. Clinical symptoms include fever, weight loss, and splenomegaly; pancytopenia and hypergammaglobulinemia are often present. Most (90%) new cases each year arise in rural areas of India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sudan, and Brazil but the disease has a worldwide distribution, including the Middle East.  Definitive diagnosis has required the microscopic documentation of characteristic intracellular amastigotes in stained smears from culture of aspirates of tissue (spleen, lymph node) or bone marrow. The detection of serum antibodies to the recombinant K39 antigen of Leishmania donovani is an alternative noninvasive sensitive (95%-100%) method for the diagnosis of active, visceral leishmaniasis.


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Leptin is a hormone produced by fat cells in the body. It is the gatekeeper of fat metabolism, monitoring how much energy a person takes in. Leptin acts to maintain energy balance in the body by regulating metabolism and hunger. The level of leptin circulating in your body is directly proportional to the total amount of fat you have. That means the more fat you have, the greater the amount of leptin you have. When present in high levels, it signals our brain that we’re full and can stop eating. When low, we feel hungry and crave food. Most people don't have a leptin deficiency, rather they have lost sensitivity to their leptin. Much like insulin resistance, it's possible to have enough leptin in your blood, but because your body doesn't use it effectively, you still feel hungry. In these cases, the leptin is not getting into the brain effectively and it is important to take measures to improve your body’s leptin sensitivity. This improvement can help you maintain a stable body weight.

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Leptospirosis is a zoonotic disease transmitted through soil, food or water contaminated by urine of infected animal. Illness may be self limiting or cause Hepatorenal failure (Weil syndrome. IgM antibodies appear within 1-2 weeks after onset of illness and peak at 2-4 weeks.Leptospirosis is a zoonotic disease transmitted through soil, food or water contaminated by urine of infected animal. Illness may be self limiting or cause Hepatorenal failure (Weil syndrome. IgM antibodies appear within 1-2 weeks after onset of illness and peak at 2-4 weeks.

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A leukocyte alkaline phosphatase (LAP) test is a laboratory test that can be conducted on a sample of your blood. Your doctor can order it to measure the amount of alkaline phosphatase, a group of enzymes, in certain white blood cells. Before the advent of more advanced tests, the LAP test was commonly use to diagnose chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). This is a type of cancer than affects white blood cells. If you have CML, the level of alkaline phosphatase in your white blood cells will be lower than normal. Some doctors still order the LAP test to check for signs of CML. It can also help them rule out other disorders. But it’s now generally accepted that a cytogenetic test (a test of your cells and chromosomes) is needed to confirm a CML diagnosis. As a result, the LAP test is used less often now than in the past.


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LH is a hormone that’s produced in the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain, and it’s roughly the size of a pea. If you’re a woman, LH is an important part of your menstrual cycle. It works with follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which is another gonadotropin made in the pituitary gland. FSH stimulates the ovarian follicle, causing an egg to grow. It also triggers the production of estrogen in the follicle. The rise in estrogen tells your pituitary gland to stop producing FSH and to start making more LH. The shift to LH causes the egg to be released from the ovary, a process called ovulation. In the empty follicle, cells proliferate, turning it into a corpus luteum. This structure releases progesterone, a hormone necessary to maintain pregnancy. If pregnancy doesn’t occur, the levels of progesterone drop off and the cycle begins again.If you’re a man, your pituitary gland also produces LH. The hormone binds to receptors in certain cells in your testes called Leydig cells. This leads to the release of testosterone, a hormone that’s necessary for producing sperm cells.

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Your pancreas makes an enzyme called lipase. When you eat, lipase is released into your digestive tract to help your intestines break down the fats in the food you’re eating. Lipase also allows cell nutrients and cell waste to move through the walls of the cells in your body. Certain levels of lipase are needed to maintain normal digestive and cell function. Abnormally high levels of the enzyme in your blood can be a sign of a health problem.The serum lipase test is used to measure the amount of lipase in the body. The lipase test is often ordered at the same time as the amylase test. An amylase test is used to diagnose diseases of the pancreas. The results from these tests are typically used to diagnose and monitor specific health conditions, including:


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This group of tests measures the amount of cholesterol and other fats in your blood. Cholesterol and triglycerides are lipids, or fats. These fats are important for cell health, but they can be harmful when they build up in the blood. Sometimes they can lead to clogged, inflamed arteries, a condition call atherosclerosis. This may keep your heart from working normally if the arteries of your heart muscle are affected. This panel of tests helps predict your risk for heart disease and stroke.


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Reference ranges of lipoprotein (a) (Lp[a]) vary and depend on assay and reporting laboratories. They also differ by population and may differ regionally worldwide. Nonetheless, many US lipidologists generally consider an Lp(a) level of less than 10 mg/dL to indicate a lower cardiovascular risk. levels higher than 10 mg/dL are associated with an increase in cardiovascular risk (see Interpretation). The apolipoproteins have a primary responsibility for the transport of lipids and cholesterol. Apolipoprotein B (apoB) is a nonexchangeable lipoprotein that exists in two forms in humans, apoB-100 and apoB-48.


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Lithium has been the gold standard drug for treatment in bipolar disorder. It was administered as thrice daily with standard preparation; later twice daily with the availability of sustained release preparations. The efficacy of lithium is dose-dependent and reliably correlates with serum concentrations. Therapeutic efficacy of lithium demands maintenance of serum concentrations in the range of 0.8 and 1.2 mmol/L (trough level).[1] Lower levels are considered to be noneffective, and serum level above this range would lead to side-effects and toxicity. Amdisen[2] proposed the use of a standardized 12 h serum lithium concentration, which subsequently became the universally accepted mode of monitoring lithium levels in patients who have been taking the drug in two or more divided dosages with standard preparations where the last dose would be administered at bed time. It is convenient for the patient to provide a blood sample to check the trough levels before the next morning dose. However, in the current day, clinical practice once a day (OD) dose is being prescribed for reasons of better compliance.[3] The current practice is to measure serum lithium levels at 12 h after the last dosing, irrespective of BD/OD administration.

Now the clinical question is whether this standardized 12 h serum level estimation indicates true trough level when lithium is administered as OD dosage. If not, would it lead to misleading clinical decisions in estimating the correct dose of lithium and also erroneous interpretations of lithium nonresponse? The current study is undertaken to test this hypothesis! To the best of our knowledge, this would be the first study to be published in the literature to determine the appropriate time for serum lithium level estimation for OD administration of sustained release preparations of lithium


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Anxiety is an emotion characterized by an unpleasant state of inner turmoil, often accompanied by nervous behavior, such as pacing back and forth, somatic complaints, and rumination. It is the subjectively unpleasant feelings of dread over anticipated events, such as the feeling of imminent death. Anxiety is not the same as fear, which is a response to a real or perceived immediate threat, whereas anxiety is the expectation of future threat.[3] Anxiety is a feeling of uneasiness and worry, usually generalized and unfocused as an overreaction to a situation that is only subjectively seen as menacing. It is often accompanied by muscular tension,[3] restlessness, fatigue and problems in concentration. Anxiety can be appropriate, but when experienced regularly the individual may suffer from an anxiety disorder.

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It's normal to feel anxious from time to time, especially if your life is stressful. However, excessive, ongoing anxiety and worry that are difficult to control and interfere with day-to-day activities may be a sign of generalized anxiety disorder.


It's possible to develop generalized anxiety disorder as a child or an adult. Generalized anxiety disorder has symptoms that are similar to panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder and other types of anxiety, but they're all different conditions.


Living with generalized anxiety disorder can be a long-term challenge. In many cases, it occurs along with other anxiety or mood disorders. In most cases, generalized anxiety disorder improves with psychotherapy or medications. Making lifestyle changes, learning coping skills and using relaxation techniques also can help.


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Liver function tests help determine the health of your liver by measuring the levels of proteins, liver enzymes, or bilirubin in your blood.


A liver function test is often given in the following situations: to screen for liver infections, such as hepatitis C

to monitor the side effects of certain medications known to affect the liver

if you already have a liver disease, to monitor the disease and how well a particular treatment is working

to measure the degree of scarring (cirrhosis) on the liver

if you’re experiencing the symptoms of a liver disorder

if you’re planning on becoming pregnant

Many tests can be performed on the liver, but most of them don’t measure the overall function of the liver. Commonly used tests to check liver function are the alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), albumin, and bilirubin tests. The ALT and AST tests measure enzymes that your liver releases in response to damage or disease. The albumin and bilirubin tests measure how well the liver creates albumin, a protein, and how well it disposes of bilirubin, a waste product of the blood.

Having abnormal results on any of the liver function tests doesn’t necessarily mean you have liver disease or damage. Talk to your doctor about the results of your liver function test.

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Lupus anticoagulant (LAC) testing is important for evaluating patients with antiphospholipid syndromes and hypercoagulable states. We reviewed results of proficiency testing challenges (n = 5) distributed by the North American Specialized Coagulation Laboratory Association to examine LAC testing performed by participating laboratories. The activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) and dilute Russell viper venom time (dRVVT) constituted major testing methods. In screening studies, LAC-sensitive APTT methods were more sensitive to weak LAC than dRVVT-based methods but less specific. In confirmatory testing, dRVVT methods performed better, but performance was LAC-dependent. The highest false-negative confirmatory test results were obtained for the platelet neutralization procedure. Noncompliance with recommendations for LAC testing by the International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis was high (8%–38%), with the majority of noncompliant laboratories failing to report results of mixing studies. These data provide new insights into LAC testing in North America and identify opportunities for standardization.


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Lyme disease is caused by a bacteria, Borrelia burgdorferi, that’s transmitted to humans through a bite from an infected black-legged or deer tick. Symptoms can occur anywhere from 3 to 30 days after the bite, and symptoms can be wide-ranging, depending on the stage of the infection. The chances you might get Lyme disease from a tick bite depend on the kind of tick, where you were when the bite occurred, and how long the tick was attached to you, according to the CDC. Black-legged ticks must be attached to you for at least 24 hours to transmit Lyme disease.


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Lysozyme is a bacteriolytic enzyme that is found in some hematopoietic cells. It is primarily present in granulocytes, monocytes, and histiocytes. The enzyme is present in only minute amounts in lymphocytes; and is not present in myeloblasts, eosinophils, and basophils. Lysozyme in the plasma comes chiefly from the degradation of granulocytes and monocytes and its concentration reflects the turnover of these cells. Increases are seen in benign (eg, infection, inflammation) and malignant processes(eg, some leukemias). Plasma lysozyme is elevated in patients with acute or chronic granulocytic or monocytic leukemias and falls with successful treatment. Conversely, patients with lymphocytic leukemia may have depressed plasma lysozyme levels. Patients with renal disorders (including rejection of transplanted kidneys) or Crohn’s disease (regional enteritis) also tend to have elevated levels of plasma lysozyme.


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Magnesium is important to the functioning of your body and can be found in many common foods. Rich magnesium sources include green vegetables, nuts, seeds, and beans. Your tap water may also contain magnesium. According to the National Institutes of Health (NIH), this mineral plays a role in more than 300 of your body’s biochemical reactions. For example, it helps regulate blood pressure and your heartbeat. It also helps maintain bone strength.Having too little magnesium in your body can negatively affect all of these functions. It’s possible to have too much magnesium as well.If your doctor suspects that your magnesium level is too low or too high, they may order a serum magnesium test. This test involves a basic blood draw. Your doctor will collect some of your blood into a vial or tube and send it to a lab for testing.


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Malaria antigen detection tests are a group of commercially available rapid diagnostic tests of the rapid antigen test type that allow quick diagnosis of malaria by people who are not otherwise skilled in traditional laboratory techniques for diagnosing malaria or in situations where such equipment is not available. There are currently over 20 such tests commercially available (WHO product testing 2008). The first malaria antigen suitable as target for such a test was a soluble glycolytic enzyme Glutamate dehydrogenase.[1][2][3] None of the rapid tests are currently as sensitive as a thick blood film, nor as cheap. A major drawback in the use of all current dipstick methods is that the result is essentially qualitative. In many endemic areas of tropical Africa, however, the quantitative assessment of parasitaemia is important, as a large percentage of the population will test positive in any qualitative assay.

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The mainstay of malaria diagnosis has been the microscopic examination of blood, utilizing blood films.[1] Although blood is the sample most frequently used to make a diagnosis, both saliva and urine have been investigated as alternative, less invasive specimens.[2] More recently, modern techniques utilizing antigen tests or polymerase chain reaction have been discovered, though these are not widely implemented in malaria endemic regions.[3][4] Areas that cannot afford laboratory diagnostic tests often use only a history of subjective fever as the indication to treat for malaria

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Red blood cell (RBC) indices are individual components of a routine blood test called the complete blood count (CBC). The CBC is used to measure the quantity and physical characteristics of different types of cells found in your blood.

Blood consists of RBCs, white blood cells (WBCs), and platelets that are suspended in your plasma. Platelets are cells that enable clot formation. RBCs contain hemoglobin, which carries oxygen throughout your body to all of your tissues and organs. An RBC is pale red and gets its color from hemoglobin. It’s shaped like a doughnut, but it has a thinner area in the middle instead of a hole. Your RBCs are normally all the same color, size, and shape. However, certain conditions can cause variations that impair their ability to function properly.  The RBC indices measure the size, shape, and physical characteristics of the RBCs. Your doctor can use RBC indices to help diagnose the cause of anemia. Anemia is a common blood disorder in which you have too few, misshapen, or poorly functional RBCs.





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MCH stands for Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin, and is a calculation of the average amount of hemoglobin contained within each of a person's red blood cells. Hemoglobin is the substance that carries oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body through the bloodstream. Abnormally high or low levels of MCH, as determined by blood testing, can be an indication of a number of problems within the body, ranging from nutrient deficiencies to chronic diseases.The MCH blood test is done as a component of a blood test called a Complete Blood Count (CBC), which evaluates the composition of the blood, checking hematocrit, white blood cells (WBC) and platelets as well as hemoglobin and red blood cells (RBC). It is usually ordered to get an overview of general health. MCH is not measured directly, but calculated based on the hemoglobin value (Hgb), which is the total measure of hemoglobin in the blood, and the RBC, which is the number of red blood cells in the blood. To calculate MCH, the Hgb is divided by RCB, yielding an average amount of hemoglobin per red blood cell. Normal levels of MCH are between 26 and 33 picograms (pg) of hemoglobin per RBC.


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The mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) is the average concentration of hemoglobin in your red blood cells. Hemoglobin is the protein molecule that allows red blood cells to carry oxygen to tissues within your body. Your MCHC can fall into low, normal, and high ranges even if your red blood cell count is normal.


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MCV stands for mean corpuscular volume. There are three main types of corpuscles (blood cells) in your blood–red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. An MCV blood test measures the average size of your red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes. Red blood cells move oxygen from your lungs to every cell in your body. Your cells need oxygen to grow, reproduce, and stay healthy. If your red blood cells are too small or too large, it could be a sign of a blood disorder such as anemia, a vitamin deficiency, or other medical condition.


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A rubella blood test detects antibodies that are made by the immune system to help kill the rubella virus. These antibodies remain in the bloodstream for years. The presence of certain antibodies means a recent infection, a past infection, or that you have been vaccinated against the disease. Rubella (also called German measles or 3-day measles) usually does not cause long-term problems. But a woman infected with the rubella virus during pregnancy can transmit the disease to her baby (fetus). And serious birth defects called congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) could develop, especially during the first trimester. Birth defects of CRS include cataracts and other eye problems, hearing impairment, and heart disease. Miscarriage and stillbirth are also possible consequences for pregnant women. The vaccination to prevent rubella protects against these complications.A rubella test is usually done for a woman who is or wants to become pregnant to determine whether she is at risk for rubella. Several laboratory methods can be used to detect rubella antibodies in the blood. The most commonly used method is the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA, EIA).


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Filariasis is a disease resulting from parasitization by thread like of filiform worms called filariae. The embryos circulate in lymphatic tissues and blood as microfilaria leading to Lymphangitis, Lymphadenitis, Elephantiasis and Tropical eosinophilia


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The mitochondria create energy for the cells in your body to use. They’re critical to the normal functioning of all cells.Antimitochondrial antibodies (AMAs) are an example of an autoimmune response that occurs when the body turns against its own cells, tissues, and organs. When this happens, the immune system attacks the body as though it were an infection. The AMA test identifies elevated levels of these antibodies in your blood. The test is most often used to detect an autoimmune condition known as primary biliary cholangitis (PBC), previously known as primary biliary cirrhosis.


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Mononucleosis is a viral infection caused by the Epstein Barr virus and is common in adolescents and young adults. Often times, there are no symptoms, but others feel tired, feverish, have a sore throat, etc. The Mononucleosis Test (Qualitative) will detect what’s called ‘heterophil antibodies’ in your blood (related to mono). Keep in mind, if you’ve had mononucleosis in the past, you will always test positive for it.


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Tuberculin is a glycerol extract of the tubercle bacillus. Purified protein derivative (PPD) tuberculin is a precipitate of species-nonspecific molecules obtained from filtrates of sterilized, concentrated cultures. The tuberculin reaction was first described by Robert Koch in 1890. The test was first developed and described by the German physician Felix Mendel in 1908 [1] It is named after Charles Mantoux, a French physician who built on the work of Koch and Clemens von Pirquet to create his test in 1907. However, the test was unreliable due to impurities in tuberculin which tended to cause false results.[2] Esmond R. Long and Florence B. Seibert identified the active agent in tuberculin as a protein. Seibert then spent a number of years developing methods for separating and purifying the protein from Mycobacterium tuberculosis, obtaining purified protein derivative (PPD) and enabling the creation of a reliable test for tuberculosis.[2] Her first publication on the purification of tuberculin appeared in 1934.[3] By the 1940s, Seibert's PPD was the international standard for tuberculin tests.[4] In 1939, M. A. Linnikova in the USSR created a modified version of PPD. In 1954, the Soviet Union started mass production of PPD-L, named after Linnikova.[c


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The mumps virus is a member of the Paramyxoviridae family of viruses, which include parainfluenza virus serotypes 1-4, measles, respiratory syncytial virus, and metapneumovirus. Mumps is highly infectious among unvaccinated individuals and is typically transmitted through inhalation of infected respiratory droplets or secretions. Following an approximately 2-week incubation period, symptom onset is typically acute with a prodrome of low-grade fever, headache, and malaise.(1,2) Painful enlargement of the salivary glands, the hallmark of mumps, occurs in approximately 60% to 70% of infections and in 95% of patients with symptoms. Testicular pain (orchitis) occurs in approximately 15% to 30% of postpubertal men and abdominal pain (oophoritis) is found in 5% of postpubertal women.(1) Other complications include mumps-associated pancreatitis (<5% of cases) and central nervous system disease (meningitis <10% and encephalitis <1%).

Widespread routine immunization of infants with attenuated mumps virus has dramatically decreased the number of reported mumps cases in the United States. However, outbreaks continue to occur, indicating persistence of the virus in the general population. Laboratory diagnosis of mumps is typically accomplished by detection of IgM- and IgG-class antibodies to the mumps virus. However, due to the widespread mumps vaccination program, in clinically suspected cases of acute mumps infection, serologic testing should be supplemented with virus isolation in culture or detection of viral nucleic acid by PCR in throat, saliva, or urine specimens.


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Mycobacterioses (tuberculosis, leprosy, atypical mycobacterioses, paratuberculosis, and perhaps

Crohn’s Disease) are the infectious diseases of men and animals with the largest diffusion on earth.

The infectious agents of tuberculosis are acid-resistant rod-like formed bacteria of the family

Mycobacteriaceae, genus Mycobacterium. The germ was detected by Robert Koch in 1882. Owing

to the very high infectious power of pathogenic mycobacteria, early diagnosis is essential to

prevent spreading of the disease. Convergence of various approaches are necessary to control the

mycobacterioses, immune reactions and bacterial shedding being variable during the diseases.

However, usual diagnostic procedures were up to now unsatisfactory and did not allow to

distinguish among different mycobacterial species. The illness is normally transferred by droplets

of saliva from infected persons. The target of the infection are mostly the lungs, but also other

organs like the brain, intestinal tract, bones, lymph nodes and kidneys can be afflicted.

Tuberculosis is not only found in developing countries with 8 million of new infections yearly, but

also in industrialized civilizations, as an actual disease with some thousands of cases yearly.

Without treatment, the disease leads in 50% of the cases to death within less than two years.

Clinical symptoms are fatigue, loss of weight, lack of appetite, light fever, nocturnal sweat and

pain in the chest. Especially patients with HIV are threatened by tuberculosis due to their impaired

immune system. A vaccination with living attenuated bacteria is possible (BCG = Bacille Calmette

Guérin). This is mostly done with newborn or young children. With older patients, before the

vaccination there is normally performed the tuberculin test (Pirquet or Mantoux), where a small

amount of tuberculin is injected under the skin. In a positive case, there exist antibodies against

Mycobacteria, and a vaccination is not necessary. Up to recently, there have not existed any

serological methods to detect tuberculosis antibodies in serum. The only available procedure was

besides the skin tuberculin test the direct microscopical identification of the dyed bacteria in

sputum. Meanwhile specific antigens have been prepared either by purification of natural material

or by recombinant methods. This ELISA test kit for the determination of IgG antibodies uses a

cocktail of highly pure proteins in order to determine an immune response against the bacteria in

human serum. A fresh or chronically active infection can be diagnosed by IgA and IgM tests,

which are also available. 




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In order to establish a rapid and stable method for diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection and minimize the side effects of delayed diagnosis on patients and health system, a cross sectional study was carried out. Since, the infection rate with this bacteria increasing and one of the reasons for this increase is long process of laboratory identification, therefore establishing new diagnosis methods could decrease disease rate. To achieve this aim, collected sputum and blood specimens from 50 patients with clinical suspicion of pulmonary tuberculosis were studied with both traditional, acid-fast stain (AFB) and culture method compare to Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Elisa) (IgG and IgM) and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) methods. The sensitivity and specificity of all methods were determined by using the PCR results as the gold standard. The overall sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value of AFB were 17.64, 100, 100 and 70.12%. These values for culture method was 29.41, 100, 100 and 73.33% and for IgG antibody were 66.7, 81.81, 64.7 and 81.81% and IgM antibody were 70.58, 90.9, 80 and 85.71%, respectively. It was concluded that maximum sensitivity and specificity can be achieved by PCR method.

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This test provides a measure of myelin fragments released into the spinal fluid as a result of the breakdown of myelin during acute phases in the course of demyelinating disease of the CNS (most common example of which is multiple sclerosis). MBP is a 169 amino acid peptide that comprises 30% of the protein of the myelin sheath. While MBP is a useful test in the diagnosis of active MS, some patients with this disorder will have normal limits, especially during remissions, and elevations may be seen in other disorders as well. Therefore, tests such as CSF oligoclonal bands and IgG index, which are positive in 90% of MS patients during active disease or remission, are preferred for the initial diagnosis. However, MBP is useful for providing objective evidence of disease activity.

CSF MBP levels were found to decrease to the level of controls in a group of 11 cases of chronic progressive multiple sclerosis patients receiving immunosuppressive therapy (cyclophosphamide and prednisone). These findings suggest that MBP might be used to monitor the hoped for beneficial effect of such therapy in some cases of MS.

It has been suggested that MBP levels in the CSF might be used in the assessment of radiation-induced myelopathy. MS patients in relapse have been shown to have increased interleukin 1 and interleukin 2 production as the result of MBP stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells.



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Gingivitis: Gum disease with inflammation of the gums. On inspection, the gums will appear red and puffy, and will usually bleed during tooth-brushing or dental examination. Treatment is by improved cleaning, with more-frequent and longer brushing and flossing, and/or the use of electronic tooth-cleaning equipment. Antiseptic mouthwashes may also be recommended. See also acute membranous gingivitis

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Myoglobin is a small, oxygen-binding protein found in heart and skeletal muscles. It traps oxygen within muscle cells, allowing the cells to produce the energy required for muscular contraction. When heart or skeletal muscle is injured, myoglobin is released into the blood. Elevated levels can be measured within a few hours following an injury.
Myoglobin is filtered from the blood by the kidneys and is released into the urine. Large quantities of myoglobin are toxic to the kidneys. If significant amounts of myoglobin are released into the bloodstream, which can happen after severe trauma or muscle injuries, the excess myoglobin may cause damage to the kidneys and eventually result in kidney failure. Measurement of myoglobin in urine helps to detect this condition.


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Eosinophils from nasal smears can be easily distinguished from other granulocytes when submitted to a cytochemical stain. A careful evaluation of the cytological picture may be of diagnostic value in the differentiation of allergy from super imposed infections, or in the attribution of a cause of asthma in children and adults.While it is well documented that the scope of eosinophil stains goes well beyond screening for allergic rhinitis when evaluating body fluids other than those of nasal origin, for compliance purposes with CLIA regulations, the scope of this procedure is restricted to the examination of nasal secretions. This procedure does not apply to the examination of specimens such as urine, stool, or GI secretions.In non-allergic patients experiencing acute infections, few scattered eosinophils may be noted mixed with neutrophils in the resolution stage of the infection. If the number of eosinophils adds up to portray an allergic response, it is recommended follow- up smears are done to achieve distinction between the 2 cases. In the allergic patient, the eosinophils will increment to large numbers whereas neutrophils will disappear (provided a chronic infection does not complicate the picture). Goblet cells, a constant and reliable feature observed in smears from allergy patients even when eosinophils are not demonstrated. These cells are normally not exfoliated; therefore, they will only be apparent if the specimen was obtained by swabbing the mucosa. Goblet cells are “edematous” columnar epithelial cells that are goblet in form. Their cytoplasm is vacuolated and mostly without cilia. Cells eventually rupture leaving the nucleus behind.

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Enolase is a glycolytic enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of 2-phosphoglycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate. Enolase exists in the form of several tissue-specific isoenzymes, consisting of homo or heterodimers of 3 different monomer-isoforms (alpha, beta, and gamma). Neuron specific enolase (NSE) is a 78 kD gamma-homodimer and represents the dominant enolase-isoenzyme found in neuronal and neuroendocrine tissues. Its levels in other tissues, except erythrocytes, are negligible. The biological half-life of NSE in body fluids is approximately 24 hours.

Due to this organ-specificity, concentrations of NSE in serum or, more commonly, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), are often elevated in diseases which result in relative rapid (hours/days to weeks, rather than months to years) neuronal destruction. Measurement of NSE in serum of CSF can therefore assist in the differential diagnosis of a variety of neuron-destructive and neurodegenerative disorders. The most common application is in the differential diagnosis of dementias, where elevated CSF concentrations support the diagnosis of rapidly progressive dementias, such as Creutzfeldt-Jacob Disease. NSE might also have utility as a prognostic marker in neuronal injury. There is, for example, increasing evidence that elevated serum NSE levels correlate with a poor outcome in coma, in particular when caused by hypoxic insult.

NSE is also frequently overexpressed by neural crest-derived tumors. Up to 70% of patients with small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC) have elevated serum NSE concentrations at diagnosis, and approximately 90% of patients with advanced SCLC will have serum levels above the healthy reference range. Other neuroendocrine tumors with frequent expression of NSE include carcinoids (up to 66% of cases), islet cell tumors (typically <40% of cases), and neuroblastoma (exact frequency of NSE expression unknown). NSE levels in NSE-secreting neoplasms correlate with tumor mass and tumor metabolic activity. High levels have therefore some negative prognostic value. Falling or rising levels are often correlated with tumor shrinkage or recurrence, respectively.

Serum neuron-specific enolase (NSE) measurement has its greatest utility in the follow-up of patients with tumors of any type that have been shown to secrete NSE. With successful treatment, serum concentrations should fall with a half-life of approximately 24 hours. Persistent NSE elevations in the absence of other possible causes (see Cautions) suggest persistent tumor. Rising levels indicate tumor spread, or in patients who had previously become NSE negative, recurrence.

In the context of a patient with a lung mass, disseminated malignancy of unknown origin or symptoms suggestive of paraneoplastic disease without identifiable tumor, elevated NSE suggests an underlying small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC).


In patients with suspected carcinoid, islet cell tumor, or neuroblastoma, who have no clear elevations in the primary tumor markers used to diagnose these conditions, an elevated serum NSE level supports the clinical suspicion.

1.Carcinoid: chromogranin A, urinary 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, serum/blood 5-hydroxytryptamine

2.Islet cell tumors: variety of peptide and amine-derived hormones, chromogranin A

3.Neuroblastoma: vanillylmandelic acid and homovanillic acid


When considered alongside established outcome predictors of coma, such as Glasgow coma scale and other clinical predictors (papillary light responses, corneal reflexes, motor responses to pain, myoclonus, status epilepticus), electroencephalogram, sensory evoked potentials, measurement of serum NSE concentrations provides additional information. Elevated levels are indicative of a poor outcome. Currently, no established algorithms exist to combine serum NSE concentrations and the various other predictors into a composite score that gives clear predictive outcome information. The NSE measurement therefore needs to be considered in a qualitative or semi-quantitative fashion and carefully weighed against other predictors by a physician experienced in examining and managing coma patients.

All neuron-specific enolase (NSE) test results must be considered in the clinical context, and interferences or artifactual elevations should be suspected if the clinical NSE test results are at odds with the clinical picture or other tests. The laboratory should be contacted for assistance in these situations.

Hemolysis can lead to significant artifactual NSE elevations, since erythrocytes contain NSE.

Hemoglobin concentrations as low as 20 mg/dL were found to have an adverse effect on NSE testing.

Proton pump inhibitor treatment, hemolytic anemia, hepatic failure, and end stage renal failure can also result in artifactual NSE elevations.

Other false positives depend on the treating context. When performing NSE testing for tumor diagnosis or follow-up, epileptic seizure, brain injury, encephalitis, stroke, and rapidly progressive dementia might result in false-positive results. On the other hand, when NSE testing is performed to assist in neurological diagnosis, NSE-secreting tumors can represent a source of false-positive results.

NSE values can vary significantly between methods/assays. Serial follow-up should be performed with the same assay. If assays are changed, patients should be re-baselined. This assay is an immunometric assay, and can therefore in rare situations be affected by false low results in the presence of extremely high NSE concentrations ("hooking") or autoantibodies to NSE, as well as by false results in the presence of heterophile antibodies.


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Diagnosis of Niemann-Pick disease begins with a thorough physical exam, which can show an early warning sign such as an enlarged liver or spleen. Your doctor will also take a detailed medical history and discuss symptoms and family health history. Niemann-Pick disease is rare, and its symptoms can be confused with other diseases. Diagnostic techniques depend on the type of Niemann-Pick disease.

1.Type A or B. Using a blood or skin sample (biopsy), experts measure how much sphingomyelinase is in white blood cells to confirm the diagnosis.

2.Type C. Experts take a small sample of skin to test for Niemann-Pick to assess how the cells move and store cholesterol.


Other tests also may be done, such as:

1.Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). An MRI of the brain may show loss of brain cells. But in the early stages of Niemann-Pick, an MRI may be normal because symptoms typically occur before the loss of brain cells.

2.Eye exam. An eye exam can show signs that may be an indication of Niemann-Pick disease, such as eye movement difficulties.

3.Genetic testing. DNA testing of a blood sample may show the specific abnormal genes that cause Niemann-Pick types A, B and C. DNA tests can show who the carriers are for all types of Niemann-Pick disease if the mutations have been described in the first person identified in a family (the index case).

4.Prenatal testing. Ultrasound can detect the enlarged liver and spleen that's caused by type C. And amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling may be used to confirm a diagnosis of Niemann-Pick.


No cure exists for Niemann-Pick disease. No effective treatment is available to people with type A or B. For people with mild to moderate type C, a drug called miglustat (Zavesca) may be an option. An international study of 92 people with type C Niemann-Pick showed improved neurological symptoms after taking miglustat regularly for an average of two years.

Physical therapy is an important part of treatment to help maintain mobility as long as possible. People with Niemann-Pick disease need to see their doctors regularly, because the disease progresses and symptoms worsen.


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Nipple discharge is the most common complaint of patients seeking medical attention for breast disease, accounting for about 5% of all breast symptoms. Nipple discharge can be either pathologic or physiologic. Pathologic nipple discharge typically is unilateral, involves a single duct, is spontaneous, and may be serous or bloody/ bloodstained. Physiologic nipple discharge is usually bilateral, involves multiple ducts, and is white or green. Although ominous to patients, most pathologic nipple discharge is due to benign breast disease. Most of the women presenting with pathologic nipple discharge have been reported to have an underlying malignancy.
Detection and differentiation of benign and malignant lesions Reduce mortality by early detection of diseases Breast cancer can be detected at early stage The test results are useful in surgical planning Diagnosis of recurrent or metastatic breast cancer Confirmation of locally advanced cancer Breast cytology has gradually established itself as an individual risk assessment tool for women at risk of developing breast cancer Unfolding and distinguishing benign and malignant breast lesions.



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Fatty acids are straight-chain carboxylic acids (either saturated or unsaturated). They are derived from the hydrolysis of fats or can be synthesized from two carbon units (acetyl- or malonyl-CoA) in the liver, mammary gland and, to some extent adipose tissue. Nearly all have an even number of carbon atoms. Individual fatty acids, free fatty acids (FFA), or the non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), circulate primarily in association with albumin. They are an important metabolic fuel.

Fatty acids play a central role in providing energy to tissues, particularly during fasting. The liver, kidneys, myocardium, and skeletal muscles, but not the brain. The major storage form of fatty acids is in triglycerides (large amounts are also esterified to cholesterol or in phospholipids), and the enzymes lipoprotein lipase and hepatic lipase hydrolyze the triglycerides to fatty acids and glycerol, thereby releasing them as energy sources for the various tissues. FFA that have been released from triglyceride by the actions of lipoprotein lipase and hepatic lipase are elevated in blood of subjects with central obesity, insulin resistance and type II diabetes.
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In biology, the nuclear matrix is the network of fibres found throughout the inside of a cell nucleus and is somewhat analogous to the cell cytoskeleton. However, in contrast to the cytoskeleton, the nuclear matrix has been proposed to be a highly dynamic structure, perhaps more like a dynamic sponge with open compartments for free diffusion of molecules in the nucleus.The nuclear matrix, along with the nuclear lamina aid in organizing the genetic information within the cell.

The exact function of this matrix is still disputed, and its very existence has recently been called into question.Evidence for such a structure was recognised as long ago as 1948 (Zbarskii and Debov), and consequently many proteins associated with the matrix have been discovered. The presence of intra-cellular proteins is largely indisputable, and it is well recognized that proteins such as the Scaffold, or Matrix Associated Proteins (SAR or MAR) have some role in the organisation of chromatins. There is evidence that the nuclear matrix is involved in regulation of gene expression in Arabidopsis thaliana.

For a long time the question whether a polymer meshwork, a “nuclear matrix” or “nuclear-scaffold” or "NuMat"is an essential component of the in vivo nuclear architecture has remained a matter of debate. While there are arguments that the relative position of chromosome territories (CTs), the equivalent of condensed metaphase chromosomes at interphase, may be maintained due to steric hindrance or electrostatic repulsion forces between the apparently highly structured CT surfaces, this concept has to be reconciled with observations according to which cells treated with the classical matrix-extraction procedures maintain defined territories up to the point where a minor subset of acidic nuclear matrix proteins is released – very likely those proteins that governed their association with the nuclear skeleton.The nuclear matrix proteome consists of structural proteins, chaperones, DNA/RNA-binding proteins, chromatin remodeling and transcription factors. The complexity of NuMat is an indicator of its diverse structural and functional significance.
S/MARs (scaffold/matrix attachment elements), the DNA regions that are thought to attach genomic DNA to the nuclear skeleton, show an ever increasing spectrum of established biological activities. All these activities are in agreement with (or most easily explained by) the nuclear matrix hypothesis. This is one justification for maintaining this concept before equally plausible alternative models emerge.

S/MARs find increasing use for the rational design of vectors with widespread use in gene therapy and biotechnology. Nowadays S/MAR functions can be modulated, improved and custom-tailored to the specific needs of novel vector systems
The nuclear matrix composition on human cells has been proven to be cell type and tumor specific. It has been clearly demonstrated that the nuclear matrix composition in a tumor is different from its normal counterparts.This fact could be useful to characterize cancer markers and to predict the disease even earlier. These markers have been found in urine and blood and could potentially be used in early detection and prognosis of human cancers.

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Spherocytes are osmotically fragile cells that rupture more easily in a hypotonic solution than do normal RBCs. Because they have a low surface area:volume ratio, they lyse at a higher osmolarity than do normal discocyte (RBCs). Cells that have a larger surface area:volume ratio, such as target cells or hypochromic cells are more resistant to lysing. After incubation, an increase in hemolysis is seen in spherocytes. Hereditary spherocytosis typically has greater number of spherocytes than other causes of spherocytosis. Therefore, the degree of lysis is usually more pronounced, but this is not always the case. Some rare disorders can also cause marked fragility and hereditary spherocytosis cases can display moderate fragility.
Spherocytes are osmotically fragile cells that rupture more easily in a hypotonic solution than do normal RBCs. Because they have a low surface area:volume ratio, they lyse at a higher osmolarity than do normal discocyte (RBCs). Cells that have a larger surface area:volume ratio, such as target cells or hypochromic cells are more resistant to lysing. After incubation, an increase in hemolysis is seen in spherocytes. Hereditary spherocytosis typically has greater number of spherocytes than other causes of spherocytosis. Therefore, the degree of lysis is usually more pronounced, but this is not always the case. Some rare disorders can also cause marked fragility and hereditary spherocytosis cases can display moderate fragility.

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Osteocalcin, or bone Gla protein (BGP), is the major noncollagenous protein of bone matrix. It has a molecular weight of approximately 5.8 kilodaltons and consists of 49 amino acids, including three residues of γ-carboxyglutamic acid. Osteocalcin is synthesized in bone by osteoblasts. After production, it is partly incorporated into the bone matrix and partly delivered to the circulatory system. The precise physiological function of osteocalcin is still unclear. A large number of studies have shown that the circulating level of osteocalcin reflects the rate of bone formation.
Determination of serum osteocalcin has proven to be valuable as an aid in identifying women at risk of developing osteoporosis, for monitoring bone metabolism during perimenopause and postmenopause, and during antiresorptive therapy.



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Oxalate (Urine)is a urine test to see whether you have a high level of the chemical oxalate in your urine. Oxalate is a natural end product of metabolism in the body. It should leave your body through your urine. If your oxalate levels are too high, the extra oxalate can combine with calcium to form kidney stones. These stones are hard masses of chemicals that can get stuck in the urinary tract. They commonly cause severe pain. Calcium-oxalate kidney stones are the most common type. Higher levels of oxalate may be caused by eating foods high in oxalate, or by your body absorbing or making too much oxalate.
You may need this test if you have kidney stones often. Your healthcare provider might order this test to help him or her make a recommendation on treatment. It may also be used to find out how well limiting the amount of oxalate in your food is working. You might have this test to see whether you have a rare inherited condition called primary hyperoxaluria and are at risk of developing kidney stones. 

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The packed cell volume (PCV) is a measurement of the proportion of blood that is made up of cells. The value is expressed as a percentage or fraction of cells in blood. For example, a PCV of 40% means that there are 40 millilitres of cells in 100 millilitres of blood. 
Red blood cells account for nearly all the cells in the blood. The PCV rises when the number of red blood cells increases or when the total blood volume is reduced, as in dehydration. The PCV falls to less than normal, indicating anaemia, when your body decreases its production of red blood cells or increases its destruction of red blood cells.

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A Pap smear, also called a Pap test, is a procedure to test for cervical cancer in women.
A Pap smear involves collecting cells from your cervix — the lower, narrow end of your uterus that's at the top of your vagina.
Detecting cervical cancer early with a Pap smear gives you a greater chance at a cure. A Pap smear can also detect changes in your cervical cells that suggest cancer may develop in the future. Detecting these abnormal cells early with a Pap smear is your first step in halting the possible development of cervical cancer.
The Pap smear is usually done in conjunction with a pelvic exam. In women older than age 30, the Pap test may be combined with a test for human papillomavirus (HPV) — a common sexually transmitted infection that can cause cervical cancer in some women.
Doctors generally recommend repeating Pap testing every 3 years for women ages 21-65.
Women age 30 and older can consider Pap testing every 5 years if the procedure is combined with testing for HPV.
If you have certain risk factors, your doctor may recommend more-frequent Pap smears, regardless of your age. These risk factors include:

1.A diagnosis of cervical cancer or a Pap smear that showed precancerous cells
2.Exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES) before birth
3.HIV infection
4.Weakened immune system due to organ transplant, chemotherapy or chronic corticosteroid use

You and your doctor can discuss the benefits and risks of Pap smears and decide what's best for you based on your risk factors.

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Parathyroid hormone (PTH) helps the body maintain stable levels of calcium in the blood. It is part of a feedback loop that includes calcium, PTH, vitamin D, and, to some extent, phosphorus (phosphate) and magnesium. Conditions and diseases that disrupt this feedback loop can cause inappropriate elevations or decreases in calcium and PTH levels and lead to symptoms of hypercalcemia or hypocalcemia. This test measures the amount of PTH in the blood.
PTH is produced by four button-sized parathyroid glands that are located in the neck behind the thyroid gland. Normally, these glands secrete PTH into the bloodstream in response to low blood calcium levels. The hormone works in three ways to help raise blood calcium levels back to normal:

1.PTH promotes the release of calcium from bones into the bloodstream.
2.It stimulates the kidneys to convert vitamin D from the inactive to the active form, which in turn increases the absorption of calcium from food in the intestines.
3.It acts on the kidneys to suppress the excretion of calcium in the urine while encouraging excretion of phosphorus.
4.As calcium levels begin to increase in the blood, PTH normally decreases.

Parathyroid hormone itself is composed of 84 amino acids (sometimes called PTH (1-84)). Intact and fragmented hormone is present in and secreted by the parathyroid gland. The intact hormone represents a smaller fraction, but its portion is increased when calcium levels are low and decreased when calcium levels are high.
Once released into the blood stream, PTH has a very short life span; levels fall by half in less than 5 minutes due to uptake and cleavage in the liver and kidneys. The fragments are referred to as C-terminal fragments and are variably sized, missing anywhere from 6 amino acids to more than half the N-terminal portion of the molecule. C-terminal fragments have a longer half-life, exist in much higher concentrations, and are eventually cleared by the kidneys. Although it was originally thought that the C-terminal fragments were inactive, it now appears that certain fragments may have biologic activities that are able to oppose those of intact PTH.

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Parietal cell antibodies are autoantibodies, proteins produced by the immune system that mistakenly target a type of specialized cells that line the stomach wall. This test detects these antibodies in the blood to help diagnose pernicious anemia.
Pernicious anemia is an autoimmune condition that can occur when the body's immune system targets its own tissues and develops antibodies directed against the parietal cells and/or intrinsic factor.

1.Parietal cells are specialized cells in the stomach that make acid to help in food digestion and also make intrinsic factor.
2.Intrinsic factor is required for the absorption of vitamin B12 from food.

During digestion, stomach acids produced by parietal cells release vitamin B12 from food, which binds to intrinsic factor to form a complex. The formation of this complex allows vitamin B12 to be absorbed in the small intestine. Among having functional roles in the brain and nervous system, vitamin B12 is important in the production of red blood cells (RBCs).
When the body’s immune system mistakenly targets its own tissues and develops antibodies directed against parietal cells and/or intrinsic factor, it can cause inflammation and progressively damage the parietal cells. This autoimmune condition, called autoimmune atrophic gastritis, can disrupt the production or function of intrinsic factor.
Without sufficient intrinsic factor, vitamin B12 goes largely unabsorbed, leading to vitamin B12 deficiency. Deficiency in vitamin B12 can result in megaloblastic anemia, characterized by the production of fewer but larger red blood cells (macrocytes). Vitamin B12 deficiency can also result in nerve-related signs and symptoms (neuropathy), such as numbness and tingling that start first in the hands and feet, muscle weakness, slow reflexes, loss of balance and unsteady walking. Other disorders can cause vitamin B12 deficiency and result in megaloblastic anemia. When it is due to a lack of intrinsic factor, it is called pernicious anemia. Besides anemia, a decrease in the numbers of neutrophils and platelets (neutropenia, thrombocytopenia) may also occur.
The tests for parietal cell and/or intrinsic factor antibodies may be used along with several other tests, such as complete blood count (CBC) and blood smear, to help diagnose pernicious anemia.

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The pericardium is a two-layered, sac-like membrane that surrounds the heart. Pericardial membranes produce pericardial fluid, a liquid that sits between the pericardium's membranes. The fluid acts as a lubricant for the movement of the heart, reducing friction as the heart pumps blood.

A variety of conditions and diseases can cause inflammation of the pericardium (pericarditis) and/or excessive accumulation of pericardial fluid (pericardial effusion). Pericardial fluid analysis is a group of tests that evaluate this liquid to help diagnose the cause of the increased fluid.

The two main reasons for fluid accumulation in the pericardial space are:

1.An imbalance between the pressure within blood vessels—which drives fluid out of blood vessels—and the amount of protein in blood—which keeps fluid in blood vessels. The fluid that accumulates in this case is called a transudate. Transudates are most often caused by congestive heart failure or cirrhosis.

2.An injury or inflammation of the pericardium, in which case the fluid that accumulates is called an exudate. Conditions such as infections, malignancies (metastatic cancer, lymphoma, mesothelioma), or autoimmune disease may cause the accumulation of exudate.

Determining if the increased fluid is transudate or exudate is important because it helps narrow down the possible causes of pericardial fluid buildup. Healthcare practitioners and laboratorians use an initial set of tests, including cell count, protein or albumin level, and appearance of the fluid, to distinguish between transudates and exudates. Once the fluid is determined to be one or the other, additional tests may be performed to further pinpoint the disease or condition causing pericarditis and/or pericardial effusion.

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A Peripheral smear is a drop of blood spread thinly onto a glass slide that is then treated with a special stain and examined under a microscope by a trained laboratorian. It is a snapshot of the cells that are present in the fluid portion of the blood (plasma) at the time the sample is obtained. The Peripheral smear allows for the evaluation of these cells:
White blood cells (WBCs, leukocytes) — help fight infections
Red blood cells (RBCs, erythrocytes) — carry oxygen to tissues
Platelets (thrombocytes) — small cell fragments that are vital to proper blood clot formation
These cell populations are produced and mainly mature in the bone marrow and are eventually released into the bloodstream as needed. The number and type of each cell present in the blood is dynamic but is generally maintained by the body within specific ranges.
The drop of blood on the slide used for a Peripheral smear contains millions of RBCs, thousands of WBCs, and hundreds of thousands of platelets. Under the microscope, the stained WBCs can be easily seen and the number and type of cells present can be estimated. The laboratorian can compare their size, shape, and general appearance to the established appearance of "normal" cells. It is also possible to distinguish between the five different types of WBCs and to determine their relative percentages (manual differential). During this examination, the laboratorian can also evaluate the size, shape, and color (indicators of hemoglobin content) of the RBCs (RBC morphology) and also estimate the number of platelets present.
A variety of diseases and conditions can affect the number and appearance of blood cells. Examination of the Peripheral smear can be used to support findings from other tests and examinations. For example, RBCs that appear larger and paler than normal may support other results that indicate a type of anemia. Similarly, the presence of WBCs that are not fully mature may add to information from other tests to help make a diagnosis of infection, malignancy, or other conditions.

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Phosphorus is a mineral that combines with other substances to form organic and inorganic phosphate compounds. The terms phosphorus and phosphate are often used interchangeably when talking about testing, but it is the amount of inorganic phosphate in the blood that is measured with a serum phosphorus/phosphate test.
Phosphates are vital for energy production, muscle and nerve function, and bone growth. They also play an important role as a buffer, helping to maintain the body's acid-base balance.
Phosphorus comes into the body through the diet. It is found in many foods and is readily absorbed by the intestines. About 70-80% of the body's phosphates combine with calcium to help form bones and teeth, another 10% are found in muscle, and about 1% is in nerve tissue. The rest is found within cells throughout the body, where they are mainly used to store energy.
Normally, only about 1% of total body phosphates are present in the blood. A wide variety of foods, such as beans, peas and nuts, cereals, dairy products, eggs, beef, chicken, and fish, contain significant amounts of phosphorus. The body maintains phosphorus/phosphate levels in the blood by regulating how much it absorbs from the intestines and how much it excretes via the kidneys. Phosphate levels are also affected by the interaction of parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcium, and vitamin D.
Phosphorus deficiencies (hypophosphatemia) may be seen with malnutrition, malabsorption, acid-base imbalances, hypercalcemia, and with disorders that affect kidney function. Phosphorus excesses (hyperphosphatemia) may be seen with increased intake of the mineral, hypocalcemia, and with kidney dysfunction.
Someone with a mild to moderate phosphorus deficiency often does not have any symptoms. With a severe phosphorus deficiency, symptoms may include muscle weakness and confusion. An extreme excess of phosphorus may cause symptoms that are similar to those seen with low calcium, including muscle cramps, confusion, and even seizures.

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Platelet antibodies may be allo- or autoantibodies and may be directed to a wide range of antigenic "targets" carried on platelet cytoplasmic membranes. Serum platelet antibody test is optimized to identify the presence of platelet allo-antibodies in the patient.
Platelet alloantibodies are involved in several clinical situations such as:

-Immune mediated refractoriness to platelet transfusions usually due to antibodies to HLA class I and sometimes to antibodies specific to platelet antigens.

-Neonatal alloimmune thrombocytopenia (NAIT)

-Posttransfusion purpura (PTP), which are usually associated with platelet-specific antibodies

This test is not recommended for the diagnosis of immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) or autoimmune thrombocytopenia. Tests that are optimized to detect antibodies bound to the platelets will be useful in these situations; cell-bound platelet antibody (Direct) test is strongly recommended instead (CBPAN / Cell Bound Platelet Auto-Antibody Screen, Blood).

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Platelets, also called thrombocytes, are tiny fragments of cells that are essential for normal blood clotting. They are formed from very large cells called megakaryocytes in the bone marrow and are released into the blood to circulate. The platelet count is a test that determines the number of platelets in a person's sample of blood.
When there is an injury to a blood vessel or tissue and bleeding begins, platelets help stop bleeding in three ways. They:

1.Adhere to the injury site
2.Clump together (aggregate) with other platelets
3.Release chemical compounds that stimulate further aggregation of other platelets

These steps result in the formation of a loose platelet plug at the site of the injury in a process called primary hemostasis. At the same time, activated platelets support the coagulation cascade, a series of steps that involves the sequential activation of proteins called clotting factors. This secondary hemostasis process results in the formation of strands of fibrin that weave through the loose platelet plug, form a fibrin net, and compress to form a stable clot that remains in place until the injury has healed. When the clot is no longer needed, other factors break the clot down and remove it.
Each component of primary and secondary hemostasis must be present, activated at the right time, and functioning properly for adequate clotting. If there are insufficient platelets, or if platelets are not functioning normally, a stable clot may not form and a person may be at an increased risk of excessive bleeding.
Platelets survive in the circulation about 8 to 10 days, and the bone marrow must continually produce new platelets to replace those that degrade, are used up, and/or are lost through bleeding. Determining the number of platelets in blood with a platelet count can help diagnose a range of disorders having to do with too few or too many platelets.

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When a doctor requires a platelet count, then a complete blood count may be ordered. The CBC blood test will include a measurement of platelet distribution width, which is how the PLATELET DISTRIBUTION WIDTH blood test results will be measured. The PLATELET DISTRIBUTION WIDTH is a reflection of how uniform in size a patient’s platelets happen to be. This can help to determine how effectively a person’s bone marrow is functioning and if follow-up tests may be required.
For platelet width, the general rule is that larger platelets are generally younger, while smaller platelets have been around for a few days. Having a high number of large platelets when someone has typically has a low platelet count indicates the bone marrow has stepped up production levels.
Because the PLATELET DISTRIBUTION WIDTH (PDW) is part of a complete blood count, it may be ordered for a wide variety of reasons. The most common issues that doctors will examine are unexplained bruising, bleeding that continues on from small cuts or wounds, numerous nosebleeds, or internal bleeding in the digestive tract. The presence of a continuous rash or purplish spots on the skin may also cause this test to be ordered.
For women, when there is continuous and heavy menstrual bleeding, the PLATELET DISTRIBUTION WIDTH (PDW) blood test may be ordered as well.
If the PDW blood test has abnormal results and if there isn’t a known cause for them, then a doctor may choose to perform additional follow-up tests in an attempt to confirm a diagnosis. This may include testing to find inflammatory conditions, the presence of infectious diseases, kidney failure, or bleeding disorders. Liver disease and iron studies may also be ordered, as will vitamin levels.
In severe instances of abnormality when there is not a definitive cause that can be determined, then a bone marrow biopsy may be ordered.
For patients who live in high altitude area, PDW test results may be affected by an individual’s living habits. Be sure to speak with a doctor about this issue if you have recently spent a at least 30 days in a high altitude climate.
The PDW blood test is generally used as a screening tool to see if a patient is experiencing good health. It is typically ordered as part of a routine health screening. If bone marrow disorders are suspected, however, it may also be ordered. Consider these results, compare them to your own results, and then be sure to speak with your doctor about what this may indicate for you and your unique health history.

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A noncancerous enlargement of the thyroid gland. With a goiter, the levels of thyroid hormones may be normal (euthyroid), elevated (hyperthyroidism), or decreased (hypothyroidism).

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Pleural fluid is found in the pleural cavity and serves as a lubricant for the movement of the lungs during inhalation and exhalation. It is derived from a plasma filtrate from blood capillaries and is found in small quantities between the layers of the pleurae - membranes that cover the chest cavity and the outside of each lung.

A variety of conditions and diseases can cause inflammation of the pleurae (pleuritis) and/or excessive accumulation of pleural fluid (pleural effusion). Pleural fluid analysis comprises a group of tests used to determine the cause. There are two main reasons fluid may collect in the pleural space:


1.Fluid may accumulate in the pleural space because of an imbalance between the pressure within blood vessels—which drives fluid out of blood vessels—and the amount of protein in blood—which keeps fluid in blood vessels. The fluid that accumulates in this case is called a transudate. This type of fluid usually involves both lungs and is often a result of either cirrhosis or congestive heart failure.

2.Fluid accumulation may be caused by injury or inflammation of the pleurae, in which case the fluid is called an exudate. It usually involves one lung and may be seen in infections (pneumonia, tuberculosis, sarcoidosis), malignancies (lung cancer, metastatic cancer, lymphoma, mesothelioma), rheumatoid disease, or systemic lupus erythematosus.

Differentiation between the types of fluid is important because it helps diagnose the specific disease or condition. Doctors and laboratory scientists use an initial set of tests (cell count, albumin and appearance of the fluid) to distinguish between transudates and exudates. Once the fluid is determined to be one or the other, additional tests may be performed to further pinpoint the disease or condition causing pleuritis and/or pleural effusion.




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Pleural fluid is a liquid derived from the blood in the tiny blood vessels (capillaries) in the lungs. It is found in small quantities between the layers of the pleurae – membranes that cover the chest cavity and the outside of each lung. It serves as a lubricant for the movement of the lungs during breathing.
A variety of conditions and diseases can cause inflammation of the pleurae (pleuritis) and/or excessive accumulation of pleural fluid (pleural effusion). Pleural fluid analysis is a group of tests that evaluate this liquid to determine the cause of the increased fluid.

The two main reasons for fluid accumulation in the pleural space are:

1.An imbalance between the pressure of the liquid within blood vessels, which drives fluid out of blood vessels, and the amount of protein in blood, which keeps fluid in blood vessels. The fluid that accumulates in this case is called a transudate. This type of fluid more commonly involves both sides of the chest and is most frequently a result of either congestive heart failure or cirrhosis.
2.An injury to or inflammation of the pleurae, in which case the fluid that accumulates is called an exudate. It more commonly involves one side of the chest and may be seen in infections (pneumonia, tuberculosis), malignancies (lung cancer, metastatic cancer, lymphoma, mesothelioma), or other causes of inflammation (sarcoidosis, autoimmune diseases).
 
Determining the type of fluid present is important because it helps to shorten the list of possible causes of pleural effusion. Healthcare practitioners and laboratorians use an initial set of tests (cell count, protein, albumin, and lactate dehydrogenase (LD) level, and appearance of the fluid) to distinguish between transudates and exudates. If the fluid is an exudate, additional tests may be performed to further pinpoint the disease or condition causing pleuritis and/or pleural effusion. See the "The Test" tab for more on this.


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Porphyrins are a group of compounds defined by their chemical structure. These compounds are by-products of heme synthesis and are normally present at low concentrations in blood and other body fluids. Porphyrin tests measure porphyrins and their precursors in urine, blood, and/or stool.
Heme is an iron-containing pigment that is a component of hemoglobin and a number of other proteins. It consists of an organic portion (protoporphyrin) bound to an iron atom. The synthesis of heme is a step-by-step process that requires the sequential action of eight different enzymes. If there is a deficiency in one of these enzymes, the process is impeded and intermediate porphyrins such as uroporphyrin, coproporphyrin, and protoporphyrin build up in the body's fluids and tissues. The precursors that accumulate depend on which enzyme is deficient, and they can exert toxic effects.
Porphyrin tests are used to help diagnose and monitor a group of disorders called porphyrias. There are seven types of porphyria, and each one is associated with a different enzyme deficiency. Most porphyrias are inherited, the result of a gene mutation. They may be classified according to the signs and symptoms of the disease as neurological, cutaneous, or both.
The porphyrias that cause neurological symptoms present with acute attacks lasting days or weeks. Signs and symptoms during the attack include abdominal pain, constipation, confusion, hallucinations, and/or seizures. There are four neurologic porphyrias: acute intermittent porphyria (AIP), variegate porphyria (VP), hereditary coproporphyria (HCP), and the very rare ALA dehydratase deficiency porphyria (ADP). Some cases of VP and HCP may also have skin-related symptoms.
The cutaneous porphyrias are associated with photosensitivity that causes redness, swelling, a burning sensation, blistering, skin thickening, hyperpigmentation, and/or scarring. There are three cutaneous porphyrias: porphyria cutanea tarda (PCT), erythropoietic protoporphyria (EPP), and congenital erythropoietic porphyria (CEP). For more information about each disease, see the article on Porphyria.

To diagnose porphyrias, clinical laboratories measure porphyrins and their precursors in urine, blood, and/or stool. Testing may include measurement of one or more of the following:

1.Porphobilinogen (PBG), a porphyrin precursor, in urine
2.Delta-aminolevulinic acid (ALA), another porphyrin precursor, in urine
3.Porphyrins (uroporphyrin, coproporphyrin, and protoporphyrin) in urine, blood, or stool

Specialized laboratories may offer testing for one or more of the affected enzymes. The most commonly measured enzyme is porphobilinogen deaminase (PBG-D) in red blood cells, which tests for acute intermittent porphyria. A few laboratories offer genetic testing for specific gene mutations that cause one of the porphyrias, but this type of testing is not widely available.
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The postcoital test (PCT) (also known as Sims test, Huhner test or Sims-Huhner test) is a test in the evaluation of infertility. The test examines interaction between sperm and mucus of the cervix.
The PCT is scheduled close to ovulation when mucus is abundant, and the infertile couple is asked to have sexual intercourse, preferably in early hours of morning. Several hours later (usually 2), the woman is examined by the physician. The mucus is aspirated from cervical canal and spread on a glass slide. Smear from posterior fornix is used as control. 10-50 motile sperms per high power field are considered normal. Rotatory or shaky motion of sperms indicates presence of antispermal antibody. Cervical mucus is examined for quality, viscosity and fern test.

A poor PCT may indicate sperm or mucus problems, including perhaps presence of immune factors that inactivate sperm. Also ovulatory problems and poor coital technique may affect the PCT. The test is useless in presence of cervical infection.

With the application of principles of evidence-based medicine the role of the PCT has been questioned and its use has become controversial.
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Potassium is an electrolyte that is vital to cell metabolism. It helps transport nutrients into cells and removes waste products out of cells. It is also important in muscle function, helping to transmit messages between nerves and muscles. This test measures the amount of potassium in the blood and/or urine.
Potassium, along with other electrolytes such as sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate (total CO2), helps regulate the amount of fluid in the body and maintains a stable acid-base balance. Potassium is present in all body fluids, but most potassium is found within the cells. Only a small amount is present in fluids outside the cells and in the liquid part of the blood (called serum or plasma).
We get most of the potassium we need from the foods that we eat and most people have an adequate intake of potassium. The body uses what it requires and the kidneys eliminate the rest in the urine. The body tries to keep the blood potassium level within a very narrow range. Levels are mainly controlled by aldosterone, a hormone produced by the adrenal glands in the kidneys.
Because the blood concentration of potassium is so small, minor changes can have significant consequences. If potassium levels are too low or too high, there can be serious health consequences; a person may be at risk for developing shock, respiratory failure, or heart rhythm disturbances. An abnormal potassium level can alter the function of the nerves and muscles; for example, the heart muscle may lose its ability to contract.


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Gout is a form of acute arthritis that causes severe pain and swelling in the joints. It most commonly affects the big toe, but may also affect the heel, ankle, hand, wrist, or elbow. It affects the spine often enough to be a factor in back pain. Gout usually comes on suddenly, goes away after 5-10 days, and can keep recurring. Gout is different from other forms of arthritis because it occurs when there are high levels of uric acid circulating in the blood, which can cause urate crystals to settle in the tissues of the joints.

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Gynecomastia is enlargement of the glandular tissue of the male breast.
The condition may occur during infancy and puberty in normally-developing boys.
Gynecomastia results from an imbalance in the hormonal environment in the body, with a relative excess of estrogens (female hormones) when compared to androgens (male hormones).

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There’s no doubt about it, we all want a luxurious, full head of hair. Although hair loss is most commonly associated with men, women also suffer from this problem — and sadly hair loss in women is a lot less acceptable in society today. According to the American Hair Loss Association, women actually make up 40 percent of American hair loss sufferers. Such a common problem among both and women, it’s unsurprising that so many people look for hair loss remedies far and wide.

Have you noticed more hair in your brush lately than you used to see, or is you hair falling out in clumps? Do you look in the mirror and see scalp where you used to see only hair? Losing anywhere from 50 to 150 hairs per day is considered normal, but when you start losing more than that it becomes problematic, not to mention visibly noticeable. What’s really behind your hair loss, and how can you treat the cause, not just the symptoms, with effective hair loss remedies?

It’s common for hair loss sufferers to turn to hair replacement surgery and topical hair loss products in hopes of regaining their full heads of hair — or at least some of what once was. But is that the best course of action to take with hair loss? When it comes to any problem, the first step is to find the root cause. Let’s talk about the real causes of hair loss and what you can start doing today to naturally stop and hopefully reverse your hair loss. For starters there are many foods and vitamins for hair growth that won’t break the bank but can really make a difference. There also many other natural hair loss remedies like rosemary essential oil that have been shown to work as well as conventional topical products.

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Aplastic anemia is a rare disease in which the bone marrow and the hematopoietic stem cells that reside there are damaged. This causes a deficiency of all three blood cell types (pancytopenia): red blood cells (anemia), white blood cells (leukopenia), and platelets (thrombocytopenia). Aplastic refers to inability of the stem cells to generate mature blood cells.

It is most prevalent in people in their teens and twenties, but is also common among the elderly. It can be caused by heredity, immune disease, or exposure to chemicals, drugs, or radiation. However, in about half the cases, the cause is unknown.

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Don’t wait to get help if you experience any of these heart attack warning signs. Although some heart attacks are sudden and intense, most start slowly, with mild pain or discomfort. Pay attention to your body .


Chest discomfort. Most heart attacks involve discomfort in the center of the chest that lasts more than a few minutes, or that goes away and comes back. It can feel like uncomfortable pressure, squeezing, fullness or pain.

Discomfort in other areas of the upper body. Symptoms can include pain or discomfort in one or both arms, the back, neck, jaw or stomach.

Shortness of breath with or without chest discomfort.

Other signs may include breaking out in a cold sweat, nausea or lightheadedness.

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Heart disease, such as coronary heart disease, heart attack, congestive heart failure, and congenital heart disease, is the leading cause of death for men and women in the U.S. Prevention includes quitting smoking, lowering cholesterol, controlling high blood pressure, maintaining a healthy weight, and exercising.

 

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Heart diseases असल में कई तरह की हो सकती है लेकिन हम मूलत यही मानते है कि दिल की और खून ले जाने वाली और लाने वाली धमनियों की किसी तरह की बाधा होने पर जो stroke होता है उसके बाद दिल को दौरा पड़ता है और इन्सान को मुश्किलें होती है जबकि heart diseases असल में बहुत तरह की हो सकती है जिनके side effect और होने वाले कुप्रभाव भी अलग अलग तरीके के हो सकते है और यह ऐसा नहीं है कि ऐसे ही हो जाता है अक्सर हमे होने वाली किसी भी तरह की heart diseases में हमारे दिनचर्या और daily life का बहुत बड़ा हाथ है हमारी खानपान की आदतें हमारे health को सबसे अधिक प्रभावित करती है

आज के तनावग्रस्त जीवन में हृदयरोग का खतरा दिन प्रतिदिन बढ़ता जा रहा है। हृदय को स्वस्थ रखने के लिए व्यायाम करना जितना ज़रूरी होता है उतना ही स्वास्थ्यवर्द्धक खाना भी ज़रूरी होता है। 

ह्रदय को स्वस्थ रखने के कुछ उपाय (Care Tips for Healthy Heart)

सुबह नाश्ता अवश्य करें और समय पर लंच करें। 

नमक का उपयोग कम से कम करें। 

कम वसा वाले आहार लें।

ताजी सब्जियां और फल लें। 

जितने भी रंगीन फल होते हैं वे स्वास्थ्य के लिए लाभकारी होते हैं। 

तंबाकू से दूर रहें।

खाना बनाने के लिए जैतून तेल (Olive Oil) का प्रयोग करें। 

पर्याप्त नीद लें। पर्याप्त नीद नहीं लेने पर शरीर से Stress Hormones निकलते हैं, जो धमनियों को Block कर देते हैं और जलन पैदा करते हैं। 

आज हमारे जीवन का आधे से भी ज्यादा समय हमारे कार्यस्थल या ऑफिस में बीतता है। घंटों एक ही स्थिति में बैठना हृदय के लिए हानिकारक हो सकता है। 

थोड़ा समय व्यायाम के लिए निकालें। प्रतिदिन कम से कम आधे घंटे तक व्यायाम करना हृदय के लिए अच्छा होता है। ऐसा करने से Heart-Attack होने का खतरा एक-तिहाई तक घट जाता है। 

तनाव हृदय के स्वास्थ के लिए हानिकारक होता है। तनाव के कारण मस्तिष्क से जो रसायन स्रावित होते हैं वे हृदय की पूरी प्रणाली खराब कर देते हैं। तनाव से उबरने के लिए योग का सहारा लिया जा सकता है।


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A heart transplant is an operation in which a failing, diseased heart is replaced with a healthier, donor heart. Heart transplant is a treatment that's usually reserved for people who have tried medications or other surgeries, but their conditions haven't sufficiently improved.

While a heart transplant is a major operation, your chance of survival is good, with appropriate follow-up care.

When faced with a decision about having a heart transplant, know what to expect of the heart transplant process, the surgery itself, potential risks and follow-up care.

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Your heart is an amazing organ. It continuously pumps oxygen and nutrient-rich blood throughout your body to sustain life. This fist-sized powerhouse beats (expands and contracts) 100,000 times per day, pumping five or six quarts of blood each minute, or about 2,000 gallons per day.

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Appendicitis is inflammation of the appendix. Symptoms commonly include right lower abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and decreased appetite. However, approximately 40% of people do not have these typical symptoms. Severe complications of a ruptured appendix include widespread, painful inflammation of the inner lining of the abdominal wall and sepsis.

Appendicitis is caused by a blockage of the hollow portion of the appendix. This is most commonly due to a calcified "stone" made of feces. Inflamed lymphoid tissue from a viral infection, parasites, gallstone, or tumors may also cause the blockage. This blockage leads to increased pressures in the appendix, decreased blood flow to the tissues of the appendix, and bacterial growth inside the appendix causing inflammation. The combination of inflammation, reduced blood flow to the appendix and distention of the appendix causes tissue injury and tissue death.[12] If this process is left untreated, the appendix may burst, releasing bacteria into the abdominal cavity, leading to increased complications.

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Heartburn is a sensation of burning in the chest caused by stomach acid backing up into the esophagus (food pipe). The burning is usually in the upper and central part of the chest, just behind the sternum (breast bone). The burning can worsen or can be brought on by lying flat or on the right side. Pregnancy tends to aggravate heartburn.

Many people experience heartburn and there are a large number of over-the-counter (OTC) medications and home remedies available to treat heartburn or the symptoms of heartburn.


In most cases you will not need to see a health-care professional, except if the symptoms are frequent (several times a week) or severe.


If heartburn is severe or the pain is accompanied with additional symptoms such as shortness of breath, radiation into your arms or neck, you will need to see a doctor to distinguish these symptoms from more serious medical conditions such as a heart attack.

GERD (Gastroesophageal reflux disease) is a chronic and more serious form of heartburn.

If your heartburn symptoms occur more than twice a week you should see your health-care professional to make sure no serious problems are present.

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Heatstroke is a condition caused by your body overheating, usually as a result of prolonged exposure to or physical exertion in high temperatures. This most serious form of heat injury, heatstroke, can occur if your body temperature rises to 104 F (40 C) or higher. The condition is most common in the summer months.


Heatstroke requires emergency treatment. Untreated heatstroke can quickly damage your brain, heart, kidneys and muscles. The damage worsens the longer treatment is delayed, increasing your risk of serious complications or death.

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Hereditary hemochromatosis (he-moe-kroe-muh-TOE-sis) causes your body to absorb too much iron from the food you eat. Excess iron is stored in your organs, especially your liver, heart and pancreas. Too much iron can lead to life-threatening conditions, such as liver disease, heart problems and diabetes.


The genes that cause hemochromatosis are inherited, but only a minority of people who have the genes ever develop serious problems. Signs and symptoms of hereditary hemochromatosis usually appear in midlife.


Treatment includes regularly removing blood from your body. Because much of the body's iron is contained in red blood cells, this treatment lowers iron levels.

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This infection of the liver is caused by the hepatitis C virus. About 3.9 million people in the U.S. have the disease. But it causes few symptoms, so most of them don't know.


There are many forms of the hepatitis C virus. The most common in the U.S. is type 1. None is more serious than any other, but they respond differently to treatment.

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Any time an internal body part pushes into an area where it doesn't belong, it's called a hernia.

The hiatus is an opening in the diaphragm -- the muscular wall separating the chest cavity from the abdomen. Normally, the esophagus (food pipe) goes through the hiatus and attaches to the stomach. In a hiatal hernia (also called hiatus hernia) the stomach bulges up into the chest through that opening.

There are two main types of hiatal hernias: sliding and paraesophageal (next to the esophagus).

In a sliding hiatal hernia, the stomach and the section of the esophagus that joins the stomach slide up into the chest through the hiatus. This is the more common type of hernia.

 

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An armpit lump usually refers to the enlargement of at least one of the lymph nodes under your arm. Lymph nodes are small, oval-shaped glands that are located throughout the body. They play an important role in your body’s immune system. The lump may feel small. In other cases, it may be extremely noticeable. Armpit lumps may be caused by cysts, infection, or irritation due to shaving or antiperspirant use. However, these lumps may also indicate a serious underlying health condition. 

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Cholesterol is a type of fat (lipid) in your blood. Your cells need cholesterol, and your body makes all it needs. But you also get cholesterol from the food you eat.

If you have too much cholesterol, it starts to build up in your arteries. (Arteries are the blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart.) This is called hardening of the arteries, or atherosclerosis camera.gif. It is the starting point for some heart and blood flow problems. The buildup can narrow the arteries and make it harder for blood to flow through them. The buildup can also lead to dangerous blood clots and inflammation that can cause heart attacks and strokes.

There are different types of cholesterol.

LDL is the "bad" cholesterol. It's the kind that can raise your risk of heart disease, heart attack, and stroke.
HDL is the "good" cholesterol. It's the kind that is linked to a lower risk of heart disease, heart attack, and stroke.

 

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For many people -- particularly women -- hips and thighs are trouble spots. Efforts to achieve slim, trim thighs can seem futile, especially since exercise and diet won't necessarily reduce fat in the places you'd like. Though you target your stomach, the excess fat may come off your bottom, or vice versa. Still, dedication to exercise combined with good nutrition will trim fat throughout your body and help you tone all over, including your thigh

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Arthritis includes more than 100 diseases and conditions that affect joints, the tissues that surround the joint, and other connective tissue. Symptoms vary depending on the specific form of the disease, but typically include pain and stiffness in and around one or more joints.  Some rheumatic conditions can also involve the immune system and various internal organs of the body.


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Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance found in the cell membrane and is transported in the blood plasma of all animals.

Our body needs cholesterol to a certain level to work properly, but if excess of cholesterol enters blood, it can make sticky deposits to the walls of the arteries leading to its narrowing and blockage.

High cholesterol shoots up the risk of getting various cardiovascular diseases such as Atherosclerosis, Cardiac Arrest, Stroke, Heart Attack, etc.

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Hyperpigmentation is the production of excess melanin causing dark spots on the skin. Age spots, liver spots, freckles, sun spots, pregnancy mask are all types of hyperpigmentation and there are several treatments available to reduce or remove the darker skin.

Hyperpigmentation refers to areas of skin where an excess of melanin has been produced and formed deposits, causing skin patches that appear darker than the surrounding skin.


Common skin areas that experience hyperpigmentation or dyschromia are the face, arms, and hands.  Age spots, liver spots, freckles, sun spots, melasma, and any typical dark or brown spots in the skin are examples of hyperpigmentation. 

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Hypertension is another name for high blood pressure. It can lead to severe complications and increases the risk of heart disease, stroke, and death.

Blood pressure is the force exerted by the blood against the walls of the blood vessels. The pressure depends on the work being done by the heart and the resistance of the blood vessels.

Medical guidelines define hypertension as a blood pressure higher than 130 over 80 millimeters of mercury (mmHg), according to guidelines issued by the American Heart Association (AHA) in November 2017.

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Hyperthyroidism, or overactive thyroid disease, means your thyroid gland makes and releases too much thyroid hormone. The thyroid gland is located in the front of your neck, just below your Adam’s apple. It makes hormones that control your metabolism. Metabolism is the pace of your body’s processes and includes things like your heart rate and how quickly you burn calories.


Hyperthyroidism can affect your metabolism. It can also cause nervousness, increased perspiration (sweatiness), rapid heartbeat, hand tremors, difficulty sleeping and weight loss.

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Hypothyroidism, also called underactive thyroid disease, is a common disorder. With hypothyroidism, your thyroid gland does not make enough thyroid hormone.


The thyroid gland is located in the front lower part of your neck. Hormones released by the gland travel through your bloodstream and affect nearly every part of your body, from your heart and brain, to your muscles and skin.


Thyroid


The thyroid controls how your body's cells use energy from food, a process called metabolism. Among other things, your metabolism affects your body’s temperature, your heartbeat, and how well you burn calories. If you don't have enough thyroid hormone, your body processes slow down. That means your body makes less energy, and your metabolism becomes sluggish.

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The III academic programme aims to deliver world class interdisciplinary research for children with infectious, immunological and inflammatory disease, children with life threatening respiratory disease, children in pain and critically ill children on intensive care.

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On the whole, your immune system does a remarkable job of defending you against disease-causing microorganisms. But sometimes it fails: A germ invades successfully and makes you sick. Is it possible to intervene in this process and boost your immune system? What if you improve your diet? Take certain vitamins or herbal preparations? Make other lifestyle changes in the hope of producing a near-perfect immune response?

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Arthritis is a term often used to mean any disorder that affects joints. Symptoms generally include joint pain and stiffness. Other symptoms may include redness, warmth, swelling, and decreased range of motion of the affected joints. In some types other organs are also affected. Onset can be gradual or sudden.

There are over 100 types of arthritis. The most common forms are osteoarthritis (degenerative joint disease) and rheumatoid arthritis. Osteoarthritis usually occurs with age and affects the fingers, knees, and hips. Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disorder that often affects the hands and feet.

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Indigestion is often a sign of an underlying problem, such as gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), ulcers, or gallbladder disease, rather than a condition of its own.

Also called dyspepsia, it is defined as a persistent or recurrent pain or discomfort in the upper abdomen.

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In general, infertility is defined as not being able to get pregnant (conceive) after one year of unprotected sex. Women who do not have regular menstrual cycles, or are older than 35 years and have not conceived during a 6-month period of trying, should consider making an appointment with a reproductive endocrinologist - an infertility specialist. These doctors may also be able to help women with recurrent pregnancy loss - 2 or more spontaneous miscarriages.

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Interstitial cystitis (in-tur-STISH-ul sis-TIE-tis) — also called painful bladder syndrome — is a chronic condition causing bladder pressure, bladder pain and sometimes pelvic pain. The pain ranges from mild discomfort to severe.


Your bladder is a hollow, muscular organ that stores urine. The bladder expands until it's full and then signals your brain that it's time to urinate, communicating through the pelvic nerves. This creates the urge to urinate for most people.


With interstitial cystitis, these signals get mixed up — you feel the need to urinate more often and with smaller volumes of urine than most people.


Interstitial cystitis most often affects women and can have a long-lasting impact on quality of life. Although there's no cure, medications and other therapies may offer relief.

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Intestinal worms, also known as parasitic worms, are one of the main types of intestinal parasites. Common types of intestinal worms include:


    flatworms, which include tapeworms and flukes

    roundworms, which cause ascariasis, pinworm, and hookworm infections

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IBS affects between 25 and 45 million Americans. Most of them are women. People are most likely to get the condition in their late teens to early 40s.


IBS is a mix of belly discomfort or pain and trouble with bowel habits: either going more or less often than normal (diarrhea or constipation) or having a different kind of stool (thin, hard, or soft and liquid).


It’s not life-threatening, and it doesn't make you more likely to get other colon conditions, such as ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, or colon cancer. But IBS can be a long-lasting problem that changes how you live your life. People with IBS may miss work or school more often, and they may feel less able to take part in daily activities. Some people may need to change their work setting: shifting to working at home, changing hours, or even not working at all.

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Asthma is a chronic disease characterized by recurrent attacks of breathlessness and wheezing. During an asthma attack, the lining of the bronchial tubes (airways) swells, causing the airways to narrow, turn more sensitive to irritants in the environment, and thus reducing the flow of air into and out of the lungs. The causes of asthma are not completely understood.

However, risk factors for developing asthma include inhaling asthma “triggers”, such as allergens (some common to all and some individualized), tobacco smoke and chemical irritants. Several patients with asthma may also have allergic rhinitis which is characterized by sneezing and “runny” nose. It can start at any age. About half of all people with asthma tend to have their first symptoms by the age of ten years, and many children with asthma have had their first asthma attack before the age of six. Asthma cannot be cured, but appropriate management can control the disorder and enable people to enjoy a good quality of life.

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Itchy skin is an uncomfortable, irritating sensation that makes you want to scratch. Also known as pruritus (proo-RIE-tus), itchy skin is usually caused by dry skin. It's common in older adults, as skin tends to become drier with age.

Depending on the cause of your itchy skin, it may appear normal. Or it may be red or rough or have bumps or blisters. Repeated scratching can cause raised, thickened areas of skin that may bleed or become infected.

Self-care measures such as moisturizing, using anti-itch products and taking cool baths can help relieve itchy skin. Long-term relief requires identifying and treating the cause of itchy skin. Itchy skin treatments include medications, wet dressings and light therapy.

 

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Itchy eyes may be uncomfortable, especially when you’re trying to fall asleep. There are several reasons you may notice itchy eye symptoms only at night. One reason may be because you’re not as busy as you are at other points during the day. You may be more in tune with your body in the evening when things are quieter.

Working outside of your home in the daytime may mean you’re exposed to different allergens in your home at night. For example, at the office you might have air conditioning. At home, you may open windows to get a cool breeze — and possibly pollen — from outdoors.


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An itchy scalp may be irritating for anyone, especially during the hot summers. Instead of trying a host of market products and professional treatments, use these regular and popular home remedies to eliminate the itchiness from your scalp. Before opting for these home remedies, make sure you check the cause of this itchiness. Notice your scalp texture carefully. Dry skin on the scalp or infections such as dandruff and psoriasis can cause an itchy scalp. The itching and scratching can also result in excess hair fall.

Ask yourself these questions: Is your scalp dry or damaged? Are you suffering from normal dandruff or lice? Or is it any other regular reason like sweating that is giving you an itchy scalp? If your answer is yes, you can move on to the home remedies safely without further ado.


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Itching affecting the scalp, meaning the skin covering the top of the head which grows hair, can have many causes. It can be caused by parasites such as lice, irritation due to a harsh shampoo, the presence of dandruff, or a skin disease, the most common being psoriasis which causes skin lesions and itching. The treatment for an itchy scalp can be prescribed after determining the cause. The most common cause in children is head lice, the discovery of nits should lead to treatment with two applications of lotion, 8 days apart.

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Itchy skin is an uncomfortable, irritating sensation that makes you want to scratch. Also known as pruritus (proo-RIE-tus), itchy skin is usually caused by dry skin. It's common in older adults, as skin tends to become drier with age.

Depending on the cause of your itchy skin, it may appear normal. Or it may be red or rough or have bumps or blisters. Repeated scratching can cause raised, thickened areas of skin that may bleed or become infected.

Self-care measures such as moisturizing, using anti-itch products and taking cool baths can help relieve itchy skin. Long-term relief requires identifying and treating the cause of itchy skin. Itchy skin treatments include medications, wet dressings and light therapy.


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Tinea cruris, most commonly known as jock itch, is a fungal infection of the skin. It belongs to a group of fungal skin infections called tinea. Like other tinea infections, jock itch is caused by mold-like fungi, which are known as dermatophytes. These microscopic fungi naturally live on the skin as well as on the hair and nails. They’re typically harmless, but they can multiply quickly and cause infections when they’re allowed to thrive in warm, moist areas. This is why jock itch usually develops in the skin around the groin, inner thighs, and buttocks.Jock itch is most common in men and adolescent boys. The infection causes a rash that often itches or burns. The affected areas can also be red, flaky, or scaly.Though jock itch can be bothersome, it’s typically a mild infection. Treating it quickly will minimize symptoms and keep the infection from spreading. Most people find relief simply by applying topical antifungal medications and by keeping the affected area clean and dry.


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Joints are the parts of your body where your bones meet. Joints allow the bones of your skeleton to move. Joints include:

shoulders
hips
elbows
knees
Joint pain refers to discomfort, aches, and soreness in any of the body’s joints. Joint pain is a common complaint. It doesn’t typically require a hospital visit. Sometimes, joint pain is the result of an illness or injury. Arthritis is also a common cause of joint pain. However, it can also be due to other conditions or factors.

 

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Keratosis pilaris (ker-uh-TOE-sis pih-LAIR-is) is a common, harmless skin condition that causes dry, rough patches and tiny bumps, usually on the upper arms, thighs, cheeks or buttocks. The bumps generally don't hurt or itch.Keratosis pilaris is often considered a variant of normal skin. It can't be cured or prevented. But you can treat it with moisturizers and prescription creams to help improve the appearance of the skin. The condition usually disappears by age 30.


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Athlete's foot (tinea pedis) is a fungal infection that usually begins between the toes. It commonly occurs in people whose feet have become very sweaty while confined within tightfitting shoes.Signs and symptoms of athlete's foot include a scaly rash that usually causes itching, stinging and burning. Athlete's foot is contagious and can be spread via contaminated floors, towels or clothing.Athlete's foot is closely related to other fungal infections such as ringworm and jock itch. It can be treated with over-the-counter antifungal medications, but the infection often recurs. Prescription medications also are available.

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When you know the symptoms of chronic kidney disease (CKD), you can get treatment and feel your best. CKD symptoms can be subtle. Some people don’t have any symptoms — or don’t think they do. If you have one or more of the 15 symptoms below, or worry about kidney problems, see a doctor for blood and urine tests. Many of the symptoms on this list can be caused by other health problems. The only way to know the cause of YOUR symptoms is to see your doctor.




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The cause of chronic kidney disease isn't always known. But any condition or disease that damages blood vessels or other structures in the kidneys can lead to kidney disease. The most common causes of chronic kidney disease are:

Diabetes . High blood sugar levels caused by diabetes damage blood vessels in the kidneys. If the blood sugar level remains high over many years, this damage gradually reduces the function of the kidneys.
High blood pressure (hypertension). Uncontrolled high blood pressure damages blood vessels, which can lead to damage in the kidneys. And blood pressure often rises with chronic kidney disease, so high blood pressure may further damage kidney function even when another medical condition initially caused the disease.

 

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Kidney stones (renal lithiasis, nephrolithiasis) are hard deposits made of minerals and salts that form inside your kidneys.Kidney stones have many causes and can affect any part of your urinary tract — from your kidneys to your bladder. Often, stones form when the urine becomes concentrated, allowing minerals to crystallize and stick together.

Passing kidney stones can be quite painful, but the stones usually cause no permanent damage if they're recognized in a timely fashion. Depending on your situation, you may need nothing more than to take pain medication and drink lots of water to pass a kidney stone. In other instances — for example, if stones become lodged in the urinary tract, are associated with a urinary infection or cause complications — surgery may be needed.Your doctor may recommend preventive treatment to reduce your risk of recurrent kidney stones if you're at increased risk of developing them again.


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When you get a kidney transplant, a healthy kidney is placed inside your body to do the work your own kidneys can no longer do.  On the plus side, there are fewer limits on what you can eat and drink, but you should follow a heart-healthy diet. Your health and energy should improve.  In fact, a successful kidney transplant may allow you to live the kind of life you were living before you got kidney disease. Studies show that people with kidney transplants live longer than those who remain on dialysis.On the minus side, there are the risks of surgery.  You will also need to take anti-rejection medicines for as long as your new kidney is working, which can have side effects.  You will have a higher risk for infections and certain types of cancer.Although most transplants are successful and last for many years, how long they last can vary from one person to the next. Many people will need more than one kidney transplant during a lifetime.

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People with lactose intolerance are unable to fully digest the sugar (lactose) in milk. As a result, they have diarrhea, gas and bloating after eating or drinking dairy products. The condition, which is also called lactose malabsorption, is usually harmless, but its symptoms can be uncomfortable.A deficiency of lactase — an enzyme produced in your small intestine — is usually responsible for lactose intolerance. Many people have low levels of lactase but are able to digest milk products without problems. If you're actually lactose intolerant, though, your lactase deficiency leads to symptoms after you eat dairy foods.Most people with lactose intolerance can manage the condition without having to give up all dairy foods

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Laryngitis is an inflammation of your voice box (larynx) from overuse, irritation or infection.Inside the larynx are your vocal cords — two folds of mucous membrane covering muscle and cartilage. Normally, your vocal cords open and close smoothly, forming sounds through their movement and vibration.But in laryngitis, your vocal cords become inflamed or irritated. This swelling causes distortion of the sounds produced by air passing over them. As a result, your voice sounds hoarse. In some cases of laryngitis, your voice can become almost undetectable.Laryngitis may be short-lived (acute) or long lasting (chronic). Most cases of laryngitis are triggered by a temporary viral infection or vocal strain and aren't serious. Persistent hoarseness can sometimes signal a more serious underlying medical condition.


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Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a chronic condition that affects millions of children and often continues into adulthood. ADHD includes a combination of persistent problems, such as difficulty sustaining attention, hyperactivity and impulsive behavior.

Children with ADHD also may struggle with low self-esteem, troubled relationships and poor performance in school. Symptoms sometimes lessen with age. However, some people never completely outgrow their ADHD symptoms. But they can learn strategies to be successful.

While treatment won't cure ADHD, it can help a great deal with symptoms. Treatment typically involves medications and behavioral interventions. Early diagnosis and treatment can make a big difference in outcom


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If you are concerned about your uneven tone complexion or pigmentation spots on your face, you have come to the right place. In this article you will find tips about how to lighten skin naturally.By following our skin lightening tips you can get even tone skin complexion with lighter and brighter skin. We will tell you about natural skin lightening tips that can actually make a difference.


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A liver transplant is an operation that replaces a patient's diseased liver with a whole or partial healthy liver from another person. This article explains the current indications for liver transplantation, types of donor livers, the operation itself, and the immunosuppression that is required after transplantation.Liver transplantation surgically replaces a failing or diseased liver with one that is normal and healthy. At this time, transplantation is the only cure for liver insufficiency or liver failure because no device or machine reliably performs all of the functions of the liver. People who require liver transplants typically have one of the following conditions


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Fatigue is a constant state of tiredness, even when you’ve gotten your usual amount of sleep. This symptom develops over time and causes a drop in your physical, emotional, and psychological energy levels. You’re also more likely to feel unmotivated to participate in or do activities you normally enjoy.

Loss of appetite means you don’t have the same desire to eat as you used to. Signs of decreased appetite include not wanting to eat, unintentional weight loss, and not feeling hungry. The idea of eating food may make you feel nauseous, as if you might vomit after eating. Long-term loss of appetite is also known as anorexia, which can have a medical or psychological cause.


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Olfaction (the sense of smell) is an important function of the nasal cavity and skull base that has become increasingly investigated due to its role in behavior, cognition, disease severity, quality of life (QOL), and sinonasal disease. Smelling is critical and important to our daily lives. For instance, the sense of smell can alert us to the smoke of a fire or the odor of a natural gas leak, dangerous fumes, or rotten/spoiled food. Importantly, 80% of our taste is related to smell. Remember the smell of your spouse’s perfume or cologne or the taste of your mother’s cooking? Taste and smell unlock some of our deepest memories. They are critical to our perception of the outside world, factor into almost all important social interactions in our society, and the loss of taste and smell can negatively affect one’s QOL.


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lood is made up of several types of cells. These cells float in a liquid called plasma. The types of blood cells are:red blood cellswhite blood cellsplatelets, or thrombocytesWhen your skin is injured or broken, platelets clump together and form clots to stop the bleeding. When you don’t have enough platelets in your blood, your body cannot form clots.A low platelet count may also be called thrombocytopenia. This condition can range from mild to severe, depending on its underlying cause. For some, the symptoms can include severe bleeding and are possibly fatal if they’re not treated. Other people may not experience any symptoms.Typically, a low platelet count is the result of a medical condition, like leukemia, or certain drugs. The treatment usually addresses the condition causing the thrombocytopenia.


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Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disability  that can cause significant social, communication and behavioral challenges. There is often nothing about how people with ASD look that sets them apart from other people, but people with ASD may communicate, interact, behave, and learn in ways that are different from most other people. The learning, thinking, and problem-solving abilities of people with ASD can range from gifted to severely challenged. Some people with ASD need a lot of help in their daily lives; others need less.


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Lung transplantation or pulmonary transplantation is a surgical procedure in which a patient's diseased lungs are partially or totally replaced by lungs which come from a donor. Donor lungs can be retrieved from a living donor or a deceased donor. A living donor can only donate one lung lobe. With some lung diseases a recipient may only need to receive a single lung. With other lung diseases such as cystic fibrosis it is imperative that a recipient receive two lungs. While lung transplants carry certain associated risks, they can also extend life expectancy and enhance the quality of life for end-stage pulmonary patients.

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If you take good care of your lungs, they can last a lifetime. “The lungs are very durable if they’re not attacked from the outside,” says Norman H. Edelman, MD, chief medical officer of the American Lung Association (ALA). With a few exceptions, your lungs don’t get into trouble unless you get them into trouble, he says.However, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is the fourth-leading cause of death in the U.S. after heart disease, cancer, and stroke. Here are 12 things you can do to keep your lungs healthy as you age.


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Lung diseases are some of the most common medical conditions in the world. Tens of millions of people suffer from lung disease in the U.S. Smoking, infections, and genetics are responsible for most lung diseases.

The lungs are part of a complex apparatus, expanding and relaxing thousands of times each day to bring in oxygen and expel carbon dioxide. Lung disease can result from problems in any part of this system.

 

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If you’re here, you’ve probably just been diagnosed, or suspect you have Macular Degeneration, or someone you care about has just been diagnosed or suspects they have the disease.

This entire site is dedicated to information regarding Macular Degeneration, but this page will give you a quick general overview to get you oriented.

Macular Degeneration is the leading cause of vision loss, affecting more than 10 million Americans – more than cataracts and glaucoma combined.

Macular Degeneration is caused by the deterioration of the central portion of the retina, the inside back layer of the eye that records the images we see and sends them via the optic nerve from the eye to the brain. The retina’s central portion, known as the macula, is responsible for focusing central vision in the eye, and it controls our ability to read, drive a car, recognize faces or colors, and see objects in fine detail.

Illustrations of the anatomy of a normal human eye and loss of central vision:

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There are no shortcuts to growing luscious, long locks. On average, hair grows about a half an inch per month. Your general health, well-being, and genetic factors affect your rate of hair growth.You can encourage hair growth by maintaining healthy hair through a good diet and proper hair care. Certain herbs can help make your hair grow faster, too.

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A breast infection, also known as mastitis, is an infection that occurs within the tissue of the breast. Breast infections are most common among women who are breastfeeding, when bacteria from a baby’s mouth enters and infects the breast. This is also known as lactation mastitis. Mastitis also occurs in women who aren’t breastfeeding, but this is not as common.Infection typically affects the fatty tissue in the breast, causing swelling, lumps, and pain. Although most infections are due to breastfeeding or clogged milk ducts, a small percentage of breast infections are associated with rare kinds of breast cancer.


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A normal mole is usually an evenly colored brown, tan, or black spot on the skin. It can be either flat or raised. It can be round or oval. Moles are generally less than 6 millimeters (about ¼ inch) across (about the width of a pencil eraser). Some moles can be present at birth, but most appear during childhood or young adulthood. New moles that appear later in life should be checked by a doctor.

Once a mole has developed, it will usually stay the same size, shape, and color for many years. Some moles may eventually fade away.Most people have moles, and almost all moles are harmless. But it’s important to recognize changes in a mole – such as in its size, shape, or color – that can suggest a melanoma may be developing.


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There is no such thing as a "bad memory", and anyone can improve their memory, as long as you are not suffering from memory loss as a medical condition. If you want to improve your memory, there are a number of things you can do, from eating blueberries to using a variety of mnemonic devices. If you're optimistic and dedicated, you'll be able to improve your memory, whether you want to win the World Memory Championships, ace your history test, or simply remember where you put your keys.

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Men's health refers to a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, as experienced by men, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. These often relate to structures such as male genitalia or to conditions caused by hormones specific to, or most notable in, males.


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Heavy menstrual bleeding (called menorrhagia by health care professionals) is defined as soaking a pad and/or tampon every hour or less during each menstrual cycle. For many women, heavy menstrual bleeding is a huge obstacle to their lifestyles. Have you ever had to reschedule an activity around your menstrual period? Then, you know the toll it can take. You may not know that heavy bleeding can be more than a schedule buster. The heavy bleeding can also lead to iron-deficient anemia, the most common health-related threat of menorrhagia. While most cases of anemia are easily treated with oral iron supplements, sometimes the bleeding is so severe a woman's entire volume of blood drops, leading to shortness of breath, severe fatigue and heart palpitations that require hospitalization.


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Making the right diagnosis, finding a mental health professional and obtaining health insurance coverage are the main challenges families face. Many insurers do not provide equal benefits for mental health services as they do for other general medical services. There are often long waiting lists to receive quality services. Patients who have a "dual diagnosis" of developmental and/or medical conditions along with their mental health condition seem to have the most difficulty finding appropriate services.Cincinnati Children's has compiled a list of Greater Cincinnati and national resources that provide mental health services.

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Here's a secret: slaving away inside your body—right this minute—is your very own personal trainer working tirelessly to help you burn calories and shed fat. It's called your metabolism, and it's the sum of everything your body does. Each time you eat, enzymes in your body's cells break down the food and turn it into energy that keeps your heart beating, your mind thinking, and your legs churning during a grueling workout. A fast metabolism means more calories burned. The more you burn, the easier it is to drop pounds. And get this—you can make increase you metabolism so it works harder, a lot harder, 24 hours a day.To some degree, our bodies hum along at a preset speed determined by gender and genetics, but there's still plenty of wiggle room. "You have a huge amount of control over your metabolic rate," says John Berardi, Ph.D., C.S.C.S., author of The Metabolism Advantage. "You can't affect how many calories it takes to keep your heart beating, but you can burn an extra 500 to 600 calories a day by exercising properly and eating right." And by making a few changes to your routine.To make those changes simpler, we enlisted the help of leading experts and came up with a round-the-clock, turn-up-the-burn plan complete with new moves that will throw that slow metabolism into overdrive.


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Nutrition & Metabolism publishes studies with a clear focus on nutrition and metabolism with applications ranging from nutrition needs, exercise physiology, clinical and population studies, as well as the underlying mechanisms in these aspects.The areas of interest for Nutrition & Metabolism encompass studies in molecular nutrition in the context of obesity, diabetes, lipedemias, metabolic syndrome and exercise physiology. Manuscripts related to molecular, cellular and human metabolism, nutrient sensing and nutrient–gene interactions are also in interest, as are submissions that have employed new and innovative strategies like metabolomics/lipidomics or other omic-based biomarkers to predict nutritional status and metabolic diseases


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Cuts: A cut is an area of severed skin that has been penetrated with a sharp edge, such as a knife, a small tool or the edge of a sheet of paper (paper cuts are also painful). The wound will often bleed and have slightly dehiscent wound edges.Grazes or abrasions: A usually harmless abrasion of the upper skin layers that occurs after falling on knees, hands or elbows, or scratching over a rough surface with some skin coming off subsequently. Abrasions can be painful since the injury often extends to the many fine nerve endings subjacent to the skin.

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Mosquito bites are the itchy bumps that appear after mosquitoes use their mouthparts to puncture your skin and feed on your blood. The bump usually clears up on its own in a few days. Occasionally a mosquito bite causes a large area of swelling, soreness and redness. This type of reaction, most common in children, is sometimes referred to as skeeter syndrome.

Bites from mosquitoes carrying certain viruses or parasites can cause severe illness. Infected mosquitoes in many parts of the world transmit West Nile virus to humans. Other mosquito-borne infections include yellow fever, malaria and some types of brain infection (encephalitis).

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Motion sickness is the feeling you get when the motion you sense with your inner ear is different from the motion you visualize. It is a common condition that occurs in some people who travel by car, train, airplane or boat. Many people suffer from this condition if they ride on a roller coaster or other similar amusement park rides. Motion sickness progresses from a feeling of uneasiness to sweating and/or dizziness. This is usually quickly followed by nausea and/or vomiting

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Mouth ulcers — also known as canker sores — are normally small, painful lesions that develop in your mouth or at the base of your gums. They can make eating, drinking, and talking uncomfortable. Women, adolescents, and people with a family history of mouth ulcers are at higher risk for developing mouth ulcers.

Mouth ulcers aren’t contagious and usually go away within one to two weeks. However, if you get a canker sore that is large or extremely painful or if it lasts for a long time without healing, you should seek the advice of a doctor.

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Defination

Bacterial vaginosis also is referred to as nonspecific vaginitis, is a vaginal condition that can produce vaginal discharge and results from an overgrowth of certain kinds of bacteria in the vagina. In the past, the condition was called Gardnerella vaginitis, after the bacteria that were thought to cause the condition. However, the newer name, bacterial vaginosis, reflects the fact that there are a number of species of bacteria that naturally live in the vaginal area and may grow to excess, rather than a true infection with foreign bacteria, such as occurs with many sexually-transmitted disease

Facts & Symptoms


Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is an abnormal vaginal condition that is characterized by vaginal discharge and results from an overgrowth of atypical bacteria in the vagina. It is not a true bacterial infection but rather an imbalance of the bacteria that are normally present in the vagina.
Bacterial vaginosis is not dangerous, but it can cause disturbing symptoms.
Most women do not experience symptoms of bacterial vaginosis, but when they do they are:

    vaginal discharge, and
    vaginal odor.

In diagnosing bacterial vaginosis, it is important to exclude other serious vaginal infections, such as the STDs gonorrhea and Chlamydia.
Treatment options for relief of bacterial vaginosis include prescription oral antibiotics and vaginal gels. Metronidazole (Flagyl) is one option for treating bacterial vaginosis.
Serious complications of bacterial vaginosis can occur during pregnancy, and recurrence is possible even after


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If you have ever played sports, chances are you have experienced a muscle strain injury. Even if you aren't an athlete, muscle strains are some of the most common injuries; however, this type of injury is often confused with a sprain, so let's start by clarifying the difference.

A strain is an injury that affects the muscle or the tendon. The tendon is the tissue that connects muscle to bone.
A sprain is an injury that affects a ligament. A ligament is connective tissue joining bones together.
In this lesson, we're specifically concerned with muscle strains, which can come in different types: the muscle itself can partially or completely tear, or the tendons can partially or completely tear. In any case, it's painful. You may also hear a strain referred to as a pulled muscle.

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Bones give people shape. They hold the body upright, and also protect organs like the heart and the kidneys. They store the minerals calcium and phosphorus, and also contain bone marrow, where new blood cells are made.


There are different types of muscles and joints, each with different functions.


Skeletal muscle is muscle that you can consciously control. When your brain tells a muscle to contract, it shortens, pulling one bone towards another across a joint. Muscles work in pairs – when one shortens, a corresponding muscle lengthens. Physical activity maintains or increases the strength of skeletal muscles.


Smooth muscle sits in and around blood vessels and organs. You can’t consciously control smooth muscle. It helps regulate your blood pressure, airways and digestion.


The heart is made of special muscle called cardiac muscle. You can’t control it consciously. It contracts to make your heart beat.


Joints in the arms and legs are synovial joints which means they have fluid in them (synovial fluid) so bones can move over each other.


Joints in the spine and pelvis are cartilaginous joints – they provide more stability and less movement.


There are also fibrous joints that allow no movement at all – just stability. You have fibrous joints in your skull.

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One of a group of genetic diseases characterized by progressive weakness and degeneration of the skeletal or voluntary muscles which control movement. The muscles of the heart and some other involuntary muscles are also affected in some forms of muscular dystrophy, and a few forms involve other organs as well.

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Nail infection, fungal: The most common fungus infection of the nails is onychomycosis.

Onychomycosis makes the nails look white and opaque, thickened, and brittle. Those at increased risk for developing onychomycosis include:

People with diabetes;
People with disease of the small blood vessels (peripheral vascular disease)
Artificial nails increase the risk for onychomycosis because, when an artificial nail is applied, the nail surface is usually abraded with an emery board damaging it, emery boards can carry infection, and water can collect under the nail creating a moist, warm environment favorable for fungal growth.

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Your child may bite his nails for any number of reasons – curiosity, boredom, stress relief, habit, or imitation. Nail-biting is the most common of the so-called "nervous habits," which include thumb-sucking, nose picking, hair twisting or tugging, and teeth grinding.

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The nail organ is an integral component of the digital tip. It is a highly versatile tool that protects the fingertip, contributes to tactile sensation by acting as a counterforce to the fingertip pad, and aids in peripheral thermoregulation via glomus bodies in the nail bed and matrix. Because of its form and functionality, abnormalities of the nail unit result in functional and cosmetic issues. The structures that define and produce the nail (nail plate) include the matrix (sterile and germinal), the proximal nail fold, the eponychium, the paronychium, and the hyponychium (see the images below). Collectively, the nail bed (sterile matrix), nail fold, eponychium, paronychium, and hyponychium are referred to as the perionychium.

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Bad breath, also known as halitosis or fetor oris, affects an estimated 25% of people, globally. There are a number of potential causes of halitosis but the vast majority come down to oral hygiene.

Halitosis can cause significant worry, embarrassment and anxiety but, generally, it is relatively easy to remedy.

In this article, we will discuss the potential origins of bad breath, diagnosis and how to treat it.
   

Fast facts on bad breath

Here are some key points about bad breath. More detail and supporting information is in the main article.

    Bad breath is estimated to affect 1 in 4 people globally
    The most common cause of halitosis is bad oral hygiene
    If particles of food are left in the mouth, their breakdown by bacteria produces sulfur compounds
    There are a number of common causes of bad breath, including smoking, tooth decay and alcohol consumption
    Keeping the mouth hydrated can reduce mouth odor
    Bad breath in children is often due to a trapped item in the nasal cavity
    Rarer causes of bad breath include bowel obstruction, ketoacidosis and aspiration pneumonia
    The best treatment for bad breath is regular brushing, flossing and hydration
    Crash diets can cause bad breath because of the build-up of ketones.

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Nasal congestion or "stuffy nose" occurs when nasal and adjacent tissues and blood vessels become swollen with excess fluid, causing a "stuffy" feeling. Nasal congestion may or may not be accompanied by a nasal discharge or "runny nose."

Nasal congestion usually is just an annoyance for older children and adults. But nasal congestion can be serious for children whose sleep is disturbed by their nasal congestion, or for infants, who might have a hard time feeding as a result.

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Numbness in one or both hands describes a loss of sensation or feeling in your hand or fingers. Often, hand numbness may be accompanied by other changes, such as a pins-and-needles sensation, burning or tingling. Your arm, hand or fingers may feel clumsy or weak.

Numbness can occur along a single nerve in one hand, or it may occur symmetrically in both hands.

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Obesity traditionally has been defined as a weight at least 20% above the weight corresponding to the lowest death rate for individuals of a specific height, gender, and age (ideal weight). Twenty to forty percent over ideal weight is considered mildly obese; 40-100% over ideal weight is considered moderately obese; and 100% over ideal weight is considered severely, or morbidly, obese. More recent guidelines for obesity use a measurement called BMI (body mass index) which is the individual's weight multiplied by 703 and then divided by twice the height in inches. BMI of 25.9-29 is considered overweight; BMI over 30 is considered obese. Measurements and comparisons of waist and hip circumference can also provide some information regarding risk factors associated with weight. The higher the ratio, the greater the chance for weight-associated complications. Calipers can be used to measure skin-fold thickness to determine whether tissue is muscle (lean) or adipose tissue (fat).
Much concern has been generated about the increasing incidence of obesity among Americans. Some studies have noted an increase from 12% to 18% occurring between 1991 and 1998. Other studies have actually estimated that a full 50% of all Americans are overweight. The World Health Organization terms obesity a worldwide epidemic, and the diseases which can occur due to obesity are becoming increasingly prevalent.
Excessive weight can result in many serious, potentially life-threatening health problems, including hypertension, Type II diabetes mellitus (non-insulin dependent diabetes), increased risk for coronary disease, increased unexplained heart attack, hyperlipidemia, infertility, and a higher prevalence of colon, prostate, endometrial, and, possibly, breast cancer. Approximately 300,000 deaths a year are attributed to obesity, prompting leaders in public health, such as former Surgeon General C. Everett Koop, M.D., to label obesity "the second leading cause of preventable deaths in the United States."

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1. The Golden Rule

Do: Make sure you always (and we mean always) remove your makeup before hitting the sheets. The skin needs to breathe overnight. And makeup prevents that, as leaving it on overnight clogs the pores which may cause blemishes and/or blackheads. Don’t possess a makeup remover? Just put some olive oil on a cotton pad and gently massage the oil onto your face to get rid of the makeup and dirt.
Don’t: Forget that exfoliation is indispensable. At least once or twice a week, exfoliate your skin to remove the layers of dead skin, sure to leave you with a more healthy glow and brighter skin. You can also apply a paste of walnut in powder form with yogurt to exfoliate your skin, as the antioxidants present in walnuts help remove dirt and promote radiant skin.
 

Never forget to exfoliate your skin and remove the makeup before calling it a night.

2. Sun and Skin

Do: Apply sunscreen with SPF of at least 15 that blocks both UVA and UVB rays. Since a lifetime of sun exposure can cause wrinkles, age spots and other skin problems, you have to protect your skin from the sun. Make sure the label reads ‘noncomedogenic’ or ‘nonacnegenic’ so that the product does not tend to block pores.  

Don’t: Skip the sunscreen, whether it's cloudy or cold outside (no excuses). If you’re heading to a beach or around reflective surfaces like snow or ice, lather your skin up with some more sunscreen with SPF of at least 30.
 

Sunscreen with SPF of at least 15 that blocks both UVA and UVB rays.

3. You are What You Eat

Do: Keep a note of what you put on your plate. Eat fresh fruits, greens, sufficient protein and vitamins. A diet rich in vitamin C and low in fats and sugar promotes radiant skin. Consider a low-sugar diet, which can keep insulin levels down, allowing cells to maintain a healthy balance.

"Don’t: Eat spicy and fermented foods, salt, citrus fruits, fried food. Instead favour blander foods such as rice, oatmeal and applesauce”, advises American author and Ayurvedic physician, Vasant Lad, in The Complete Book of Ayurvedic Home Remedies.


Fresh fruits and greens is what healthy skin needs.

4. Sweat It Out!

Do: Exercise regularly. Running, jogging and yoga will give your body the necessary blood circulation, and also accelerate the cleansing process of your entire body. You will notice a glow on your face after working out. Racing against time? Just take a brisk walk around the block.

Don’t: Skip skincare before and after a workout. Apply a toner to help minimize oil production before heading out. Exfoliate after, and then apply shea butter or olive oil to moisturize the skin.
 
Running, jogging and yoga will accelerate the cleaning process of your body.

5. Beauty Sleep

Do: Try to sleep at least 8 hours every night. If you don’t get enough shut eye, your skin gets tired just like you - it sags and you get bags. So don’t risk it. You can also apply honey on your face twice or thrice a week to naturally soothe and heal your skin.

“Don’t: Forget to wash and moisturize your face before going to bed”, recommends Dr. Rahul Nagar, Dermatologist, Max Hospitals. “For dry skin, use milder cleansers that are free from alcohol. Apply lots of moisturizer, and avoid hot water as it dries out the skin excessively.”
 

Never forget to wash your face before sleeping and moisturize well.

6. H2O to The Rescue

Do: Hydrate yourself. Drink lots of water daily, at least 8 glasses if not more. Also, eats fruits and vegetables that have a high water content such as watermelon, cucumber, orange, strawberry, grapefruit and cantaloupe. Ayurvedic physician, Vasant Lad recommends to “drink water from a blue coloured bottle”, since it has a cooling effect.

Don’t: Ignore rose water. It helps prevent and reduce eye puffiness in the morning, maintains pH balance and naturally hydrates your skin if you spritz it on during the day.
 
Rose water maintains pH balance and  naturally hydrates the skin.

7. Goodbye Acne

“Do: Wash your face with warm water, three times a day, and gently massage your face in circular motions, ensuring that the cleanser contains alpha hydroxyl acid or beta hydroxyl acid. Face packs that contain multani mitti (fuller’s earth) work really well too. After cleansing, pat dry and apply a lotion which contains benzoyl peroxide”, suggests Dr. Zaheer Ahmed, Dermatologist, Max Hospitals. Benzoyl peroxide appears to be effective due to its antibacterial actions.

Don’t: Pop pimples because it can lead to more swelling, redness, and even scarring. Feel a pimple is on its way? Just clean the area with rose water, and place a chilled green tea bag for 10 minutes. Also, if you wear glasses or sunglasses, make sure you clean them frequently to keep oil from clogging the pores around your eyes and nose.
 
Never pop your pimples. Use rose water or chilled green tea bags.

8. Go Back to Your Roots

Do: Use Ayurvedic scrubs to nourish the skin, and help it breathe better. Luckily for you, everything you need is already in your kitchen. 2 tbsp chickpea flour, ½ tsp turmeric powder, a pinch of camphor and sandalwood with some rose water/milk/water is your perfect skincare pack. Yes, the secrets of beauty lies in ancient Ayurveda.

Don’t: Neglect the basics. Make Sudarshan Kriya your beauty mantra. Yes, it’s that easy. Just breathing right could rid you of spots and pimples. Nidhi Gureja, Art of Living, says “Sudarshan Kriya is a breathing technique which incorporates specific natural rhythms of the breath that harmonize the body, mind and emotions. This helps releasing accumulated stresses, and each individual’s experience is different.”
 
Sudarshan Kriya is a breathing technique which incorporates specific natural rhythms that helps in releasing accumulated stresses.

9. Spa Day Everyday?

Do: Have a regular skin care regimen. “For dry skin, use a fresh cherry mask. Apply the pulp of fresh cherries on your face before going to bed. Leave for 15 minutes and wash with lukewarm water”, adds American author Vasant Lad.

Don’t: Forget to pamper yourself. A gentle facial massage with oils could work wonders. Depending on your skin type, choose oils from mustard, coconut, almond or Kumkadi as they are excellent nourishing agents which help to get glowing skin. Better still – switch on some soothing instrumental music. After 20 minutes, what do you have? Beautiful skin and a relaxed you.

Pamper yourself occasionally with spa treatments.

10. Healthy Habits

Do: Take out time for yourself, and try to avoid stress as much as possible. Have you ever noticed that when you are stressed, you tend to break out more? This is because stress causes your body to produce cortisol and other hormones, making the skin more oily. Practice stress management techniques like breathing exercises, yoga and meditation. The more you meditate, the more you radiate.

Don’t: Neglect your jawline and facial muscles. For just 5 minutes a day, perform a few facial exercises. You can jut out your lower lip in such a way that wrinkles are created on the chin, then lower your chin to your chest. Another exercise that works wonders is to look up towards the ceiling and pout. It stretches out the muscles making the skin more firm. “18 till I die”, why not?
 
The more you meditate, the more you radiate.

You’re dressed to perfection, yet you need something to complete the look. Your smile! While we spend so much time and energy on honing our bodies and looks, we forget to express our inner joy and happiness. “Keeping a smile on your face will help maintain the tone of your facial muscles and skin. People may say you look 10 years younger than you are!”, adds the Ayurvedic physician, Vasant Lad.
   

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When You wake up with a stench of onion still on your breath and cant get rid of it all day, even after plentiful brushing of teeth.

When you eat foodage containing onion and cannot get rid of the stench from your breath.

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Osteoporosis is a disease where increased bone weakness increases the risk of a broken bone. It is the most common reason for a broken bone among the elderly. Bones that commonly break include the vertebrae in the spine, the bones of the forearm, and the hip. Until a broken bone occurs there are typically no symptoms. Bones may weaken to such a degree that a break may occur with minor stress or spontaneously. Chronic pain and a decreased ability to carry out normal activities may occur following a broken bone.

Osteoporosis may be due to lower than normal bone mass and greater than normal bone loss. Bone loss increases after menopause due to lower levels of estrogen. Osteoporosis may also occur due to a number of diseases or treatments including alcoholism, anorexia, hyperthyroidism, kidney disease, and surgical removal of the ovaries. Certain medications increase the rate of bone loss including some antiseizure medications, chemotherapy, proton pump inhibitors, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, and glucocorticosteroids. Not enough exercise and smoking are also risk factors. Osteoporosis is defined as a bone density of 2.5 standard deviations below that of a young adult. This is typically measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry at the hip.
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An ovarian cyst is a fluid-filled sac within the ovary. Often they cause no symptoms. Occasionally they may produce bloating, lower abdominal pain, or lower back pain. The majority of cysts are harmless. If the cyst either breaks open or causes twisting of the ovary, it may cause severe pain. This may result in vomiting or feeling faint.

Most ovarian cysts are related to ovulation, being either follicular cysts or corpus luteum cysts. Other types include cysts due to endometriosis, dermoid cysts, and cystadenomas. Many small cysts occur in both ovaries in polycystic ovarian syndrome. Pelvic inflammatory disease may also result in cysts. Rarely, cysts may be a form of ovarian cancer. Diagnosis is undertaken by pelvic examination with an ultrasound or other testing used to gather further details.

Often, cysts are simply observed over time. If they cause pain, medications such as paracetamol (acetaminophen) or ibuprofen may be used. Hormonal birth control may be used to prevent further cysts in those who are frequently affected. However, evidence does not support birth control as a treatment of current cysts. If they do not go away after several months, get larger, look unusual, or cause pain, they may be removed by surgery.
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Don’t let the bed bugs bite

Despite their role in an adorable bedtime proverb, bed bugs are pesky little pests. They sneak into your bed, your furniture, even your carpet, and while you sleep or watch TV, they bite you. The next morning, you’re left wondering why you’re red and itchy.


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What are bed bugs?

Bed bugs are small, flat, oval-shaped insects. They do not have wings and rely on humans to carry them from one place to the next. Bed bugs are a reddish-brown color and can be between 1 and 7 millimeters. They feed on blood from humans or animals, and they’re most active at night, feeding on their victims while they sleep.

What do bed bug bites look like?

Some people will not experience a reaction to a bed bug bite at all. Those that do experience symptoms of a bite are likely to experience one or more of the following:


    a bite with a red, swollen area and a dark red center
    bites in a line or grouped together in a small area
    blisters or hives at the bite site


Bites can happen anywhere on the body. Most commonly they occur on areas of skin that are exposed while sleeping, such as the face, arms, legs, and hands.


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Painful urination (dysuria) is discomfort or burning with urination, usually felt in the tube that carries urine out of your bladder (urethra) or the area surrounding your genitals (perineum).

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Palpitations are the perceived abnormality of the heartbeat characterized by awareness of cardiac muscle contractions in the chest: hard, fast and/or irregular beats. It is both a symptom reported by the patient and a medical diagnosis. Palpitation can be associated with anxiety and does not necessarily indicate a structural or functional abnormality of the heart, but it can be a symptom arising from an objectively rapid or irregular heartbeat. Palpitation can be intermittent and of variable frequency and duration, or continuous. Associated symptoms include dizziness, shortness of breath, sweating, headaches, and chest pain.

Palpitation may be associated with coronary heart disease, hyperthyroidism, diseases affecting cardiac muscle such as hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, diseases causing low blood oxygen such as asthma and emphysema; previous chest surgery; kidney disease; low levels of brain serotonin; blood loss, and pain; drugs such as antidepressants, statins, alcohol, nicotine, caffeine, cocaine, and amphetamines; electrolyte imbalances of magnesium, potassium and calcium; and deficiencies of nutrients such as taurine, arginine, and iron.
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A pancreas transplant is an organ transplant that involves implanting a healthy pancreas (one that can produce insulin) into a person who usually has diabetes. Because the pancreas is a vital organ, performing functions necessary in the digestion process, the recipient's native pancreas is left in place, and the donated pancreas is attached in a different location. In the event of rejection of the new pancreas, which would quickly cause life-threatening diabetes, there would be a significant chance the recipient would not survive very well for long without the native pancreas, however dysfunctional, still in place. The healthy pancreas comes from a donor who has just died or it may be a partial pancreas from a living donor. At present, pancreas transplants are usually performed in persons with insulin-dependent diabetes, who can develop severe complications. Patients with the most common, and deadliest, form of pancreatic cancer (pancreatic adenomas, which are usually malignant, with a poor prognosis and high risk for metastasis, as opposed to more treatable pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors or pancreatic insulinomas) are usually not eligible for valuable pancreatic transplantations, since the condition usually has a very high mortality rate and the disease, which is usually highly malignant and detected too late to treat, could and probably would soon return.
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Pancreatic cancer arises when cells in the pancreas, a glandular organ behind the stomach, begin to multiply out of control and form a mass. These cancerous cells have the ability to invade other parts of the body. There are a number of types of pancreatic cancer. The most common, pancreatic adenocarcinoma, accounts for about 85% of cases, and the term "pancreatic cancer" is sometimes used to refer only to that type. These adenocarcinomas start within the part of the pancreas which makes digestive enzymes. Several other types of cancer, which collectively represent the majority of the non-adenocarcinomas, can also arise from these cells. One to two percent of cases of pancreatic cancer are neuroendocrine tumors, which arise from the hormone-producing cells of the pancreas. These are generally less aggressive than pancreatic adenocarcinoma.

Signs and symptoms of the most common form of pancreatic cancer may include yellow skin, abdominal or back pain, unexplained weight loss, light-colored stools, dark urine and loss of appetite. There are usually no symptoms in the disease's early stages, and symptoms that are specific enough to suggest pancreatic cancer typically do not develop until the disease has reached an advanced stage. By the time of diagnosis, pancreatic cancer has often spread to other parts of the body.
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Pancreatitis is inflammation of the pancreas. The pancreas is a large organ behind the stomach that produces digestive enzymes and a number of hormones. There are two main types, acute pancreatitis and chronic pancreatitis. Signs and symptoms of pancreatitis include pain in the upper abdomen, nausea and vomiting. The pain often goes into the back and is usually severe. In acute pancreatitis a fever may occur and symptoms typically resolve in a few days. In chronic pancreatitis weight loss, fatty stool, and diarrhea may occur. Complications may include infection, bleeding, diabetes mellitus, or problems with other organs.

The most common causes of acute pancreatitis are gallstones and heavy alcohol use. Other causes include direct trauma, certain medications, infections such as mumps, and tumors among others. Chronic pancreatitis may develop as a result of acute pancreatitis. It is most commonly due to many years of heavy alcohol use. Other causes include high levels of blood fats, high blood calcium, some medications, and certain genetic disorders such as cystic fibrosis among others. Smoking increases the risk of both acute and chronic pancreatitis. Diagnosis of acute pancreatitis is based on a threefold increase in the blood of either amylase or lipase. In chronic pancreatitis these tests may be normal. Medical imaging such as ultrasound and CT scan may also be useful.
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Panic attacks are sudden periods of intense fear that may include palpitations, sweating, shaking, shortness of breath, numbness, or a feeling that something bad is going to happen. The maximum degree of symptoms occurs within minutes. Typically they last for about 30 minutes but the duration can vary from seconds to hours. There may be a fear of losing control or chest pain. Panic attacks themselves are not dangerous physically.

Panic attacks can occur due to number of disorders including panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, post traumatic stress disorder, drug use disorder, depression, and medical problems. They can either be triggered or occur unexpectedly. Risk factors include smoking and psychological stress. Diagnosis should involve ruling out other conditions that can produce similar symptoms including hyperthyroidism, hyperparathyroidism, heart disease, lung disease, and drug use.

Treatment of panic attacks should be directed at the underlying cause. In those with frequent attacks, counselling or medications may be used. Breathing training and muscle relaxation techniques may also help. Those affected are at a higher risk of suicide.
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Skin peeling on fingertips is a very common problem. Skin around fingertips is sensitive and if you don't take proper care then there are many factors which can cause the skin to peel off. In the cold climate the skin looses moisture, becomes dry and begin to flak, so don't let your skin become dry. Skin conditions such as eczema and psoriasis, sunburn and skin infections can  also cause peeling of skin around fingertips. Allergies, diabetes and vitamin B deficiency, use of harsh chemical and even frequent wasting of hands can cause peeling of fingertips skin. There are a number of natural home remedies that can repair your peeling of fingertip skin. 

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Can you treat and eliminate the bed bugs on your own? Bed bugs are challenging pests to get rid of, since they hide so well and reproduce so quickly. In addition, the egg stage is resistant to many forms of treatment, so a single attempt may not be sufficient to complete the job.

Treating bed bugs is complex. Your likelihood of success depends on many factors, including:
Person inspecting furniture for pest infestation

    Extent of the infestation.
    Site-specific challenges.
        Clutter.
        Neighbors with infestations.
        Ability of all of the residents to participate.

Achieving complete control can take weeks to months, depending on the nature and extent of the infestation, and everyone will need to cooperate and do their part.

Before starting, you should lay out all of the steps on a calendar. The following steps will help you begin:

    Identify the problem
    Develop a strategy
    Keep the infestation from expanding
    Prepare for treatment
    Kill the bed bugs
    Evaluate and prevent


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Periodontitis, also known as gum disease and pyorrhea, is a set of inflammatory diseases affecting the tissues surrounding the teeth. Periodontitis involves progressive loss of the alveolar bone around the teeth, and if left untreated, can lead to the loosening and subsequent loss of teeth.

Periodontitis is caused by microorganisms that adhere to and grow on the tooth's surfaces, along with an over-aggressive immune response against these microorganisms. A diagnosis of periodontitis is established by inspecting the soft gum tissues around the teeth with a probe (i.e., a clinical examination) and by evaluating the patient's X-ray films (i.e., a radiographic examination), to determine the amount of bone loss around the teeth. Specialists in the treatment of periodontitis are periodontists; their field is known as "periodontology" or "periodontics".
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Personality change refers to a shift in the way you think, act or feel. It may be noticeable only to you, or it may be evident to people close to you.


Gradual personality changes can be normal as you age. It is also normal for you to have changing behaviors or feelings based on your mood, but these changes are temporary and can usually be attributed to a specific event. A sudden, undesired or uncontrollable change in your personality may be the sign of a serious condition.

Several mental illnesses can lead to personality changes. These include anxiety disorders, borderline personality disorder, dementia, and schizophrenia. In the case of mental illness, personality changes may be the result of an interplay of factors, including heredity, environment and stress. These types of changes typically emerge before adolescence. Most mental illnesses are thought to result from imbalances in brain chemicals (neurotransmitters) and are treated with medication and psychotherapy.

Sudden changes in personality can also result from brain damage or infection. Possible causes of brain damage include injury, stroke, infection and inflammation, among others.

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Pharyngitis is inflammation of the back of the throat, known as the pharynx. It typically results in a sore throat and fever. Other symptoms may include a runny nose, cough, headache, a hoarse voice. Symptoms usually last three to five days. Complications can include sinusitis and acute otitis media. Pharyngitis is typically a type of respiratory tract infection.

Most cases are caused by a viral infection. Strep throat is the cause in about 25% of children and 10% of adults. Uncommon causes include other bacteria such as gonorrhea, fungus, irritants such as smoke, allergies, and gastroesophageal reflux disease. Specific testing is not recommended in people who have clear symptoms of a viral infection such as a cold. Otherwise a rapid antigen detection test (RAPD) or throat swab is recommended. Other conditions that can produce similar symptoms include epiglottitis, thyroiditis, retropharyngeal abscess, and occasionally heart disease.
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Plantar fasciitis is a disorder that results in pain in the heel and bottom of the foot. The pain is usually most severe with the first steps of the day or following a period of rest. Pain is also frequently brought on by bending the foot and toes up towards the shin and may be worsened by a tight Achilles tendon. The condition typically comes on slowly. In about a third of people both legs are affected.

The causes of plantar fasciitis are not entirely clear. Risk factors include overuse such as from long periods of standing, an increase in exercise, and obesity. It is also associated with inward rolling of the foot and a lifestyle that involves little exercise. While heel spurs are frequently found it is unclear if they have a role in causing the condition. Plantar fasciitis is a disorder of the insertion site of the ligament on the bone characterized by micro tears, breakdown of collagen, and scarring. As inflammation plays a lesser role, many feel the condition should be renamed plantar fasciosis. The diagnosis is typically based on signs and symptoms with ultrasound sometimes used to help. Other conditions with similar symptoms include osteoarthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, heel pad syndrome, and reactive arthritis.
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Polycystic kidney disease (PKD or PCKD, also known as polycystic kidney syndrome) is a genetic disorder in which the renal tubules become structurally abnormal, resulting in the development and growth of multiple cysts within the kidney. These cysts may begin to develop before birth or in infancy, in childhood, or in adulthood. Cysts are non-functioning tubules filled with fluid pumped into them, which range in size from microscopic to enormous, crushing adjacent normal tubules and eventually rendering them non-functional also.

PKD is caused by abnormal genes which produce a specific abnormal protein which has an adverse affect on tubule development. PKD is a general term for two types, each having their own pathology and genetic cause: autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) and autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD). The abnormal gene exists in all cells in the body: as a result, cysts may occur in the liver, seminal vesicles, and pancreas. This genetic defect can also cause aortic root aneurysms, and aneurysms in the circle of Willis cerebral arteries, which if they rupture, can cause a subarachnoid hemorrhage.
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Polycystic liver disease (PLD or PCLD) is a rare condition that causes cysts -- fluid-filled sacs -- to grow throughout the liver. A normal liver has a smooth, uniform appearance. A polycystic liver can look like a cluster of very large grapes. Cysts also can grow independently in different parts of the liver. The cysts, if they get too numerous or large, may cause discomfort and health complications. But most people with polycystic liver disease do not have symptoms and live a normal life.

Here are the facts about polycystic liver disease you need to better understand the condition.

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Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a set of symptoms due to elevated androgens (male hormones) in women. Signs and symptoms of PCOS include irregular or no menstrual periods, heavy periods, excess body and facial hair, acne, pelvic pain, difficulty getting pregnant, and patches of thick, darker, velvety skin. Associated conditions include type 2 diabetes, obesity, obstructive sleep apnea, heart disease, mood disorders, and endometrial cancer.

PCOS is due to a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Risk factors include obesity, not enough physical exercise, and a family history of someone with the condition. Diagnosis is based on two of the following three findings: no ovulation, high androgen levels, and ovarian cysts. Cysts may be detectable by ultrasound. Other conditions that produce similar symptoms include adrenal hyperplasia, hypothyroidism, and hyperprolactinemia.
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Postpartum depression (PPD), also called postnatal depression, is a type of mood disorder associated with childbirth, which can affect both sexes. Symptoms may include extreme sadness, low energy, anxiety, crying episodes, irritability, and changes in sleeping or eating patterns. Onset is typically between one week and one month following childbirth. PPD can also negatively affect the person's child.

While the exact cause of PPD is unclear, the cause is believed to be a combination of physical and emotional factors. These may include factors such as hormonal changes and sleep deprivation. Risk factors include prior episodes of postpartum depression, bipolar disorder, a family history of depression, psychological stress, complications of childbirth, lack of support, or a drug use disorder. Diagnosis is based on a person's symptoms. While most women experience a brief period of worry or unhappiness after delivery, postpartum depression should be suspected when symptoms are severe and last over two weeks.
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The premature graying problem is largely genetic. Hair follicles contain pigment cells that produce melanin, which gives your tresses their color. When your body stops generating melanin, hair presents itself as gray, white, or silver

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Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) refers to physical and emotional symptoms that occur in the one to two weeks before a woman's period. Symptoms often vary between women and resolve around the start of bleeding. Common symptoms include acne, tender breasts, bloating, feeling tired, irritability, and mood changes. Often symptoms are present for around six days. A woman's pattern of symptoms may change over time. Symptoms do not occur during pregnancy or following menopause.

Diagnosis requires a consistent pattern of emotional and physical symptoms occurring after ovulation and before menstruation to a degree that interferes with normal life. Emotional symptoms must not be present during the initial part of the menstrual cycle. A daily list of symptoms over a few months may help in diagnosis. Other disorders that cause similar symptoms need to be excluded before a diagnosis is made.

The cause of PMS is unknown. Some symptoms may be worsened by a high-salt diet, alcohol, or caffeine. The underlying mechanism is believed to involve changes in hormone levels. Reducing salt, caffeine, and stress along with increasing exercise is typically all that is recommended in those with mild symptoms. Calcium and vitamin D supplementation may be useful in some. Anti-inflammatory drugs such as naproxen may help with physical symptoms. In those with more significant symptoms birth control pills or the diuretic spironolactone may be useful.

Up to 80% women report having some symptoms prior to menstruation. These symptoms qualify as PMS in 20 to 30% of pre-menopausal women. Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) is a more severe form of PMS that has greater psychological symptoms. PMDD affects three to eight percent of pre-menopausal women. Antidepressant medication of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors class may be used in addition to usual measures for in PMDD.
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Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) has a wide variety of symptoms, including mood swings, tender breasts, food cravings, fatigue, irritability and depression. It's estimated that as many as 3 of every 4 menstruating women have experienced some form of premenstrual syndrome.

Symptoms tend to recur in a predictable pattern. But the physical and emotional changes you experience with premenstrual syndrome may vary from just slightly noticeable all the way to intense.

Still, you don't have to let these problems control your life. Treatments and lifestyle adjustments can help you reduce or manage the signs and symptoms of premenstrual syndrome

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Prickly heat is the common name for the medical term "miliaria rubia." It is also known as heat rash. The rash creates an area of red skin with many tiny raised bumps. This area may also blister.

The face, neck, shoulders, and chest are the most common places for prickly heat to occur, although it may show up anywhere. While it can affect anyone, children are more likely to get prickly heat than adults.

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Probiotics are the latest health obsession thanks to their seemingly endless list of health benefits. But the hype may be warranted; these friendly bacteria are the real deal. Various probiotic strains have been shown to support the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, prevent inflammation, boost immunity and alleviate conditions ranging from allergies to diarrhea, although more research needs to be done to sort out specific strains, outcomes and dosages. “Conventionally, when people hear about probiotics, they typically think of yogurt or supplements,” says Dr. B.J. Hardick, founder of the Centre for Maximized Living in London, Ontario. “Most people are unfortunately unaware of several other incredible -- and typically better -- sources of healthy gut bacteria.” Among those sources is a wide array of cultured and fermented foods. On the next slides, we’ll describe the benefits of 13 probiotic foods – some may surprise you

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Bedwetting, or nocturnal enuresis, refers to the unintentional passage of urine during sleep. Enuresis is the medical term for wetting, whether in the clothing during the day or in bed at night. Another name for enuresis is urinary incontinence.

For infants and young children, urination is involuntary. Wetting is normal for them. Most children achieve some degree of bladder control by 4 years of age. Daytime control is usually achieved first, while nighttime control comes later.

The age at which bladder control is expected varies considerably.

    Some parents expect dryness at a very early age, while others not until much later. Such a time line may reflect the culture and attitudes of the parents and caregivers.
    Factors that affect the age at which wetting is considered a problem include the following:
        The child's gender: Bedwetting is more common in boys.
        The child's development and maturity
        The child's overall physical and emotional health. Chronic illness and/or emotional and physical abuse may predispose to bedwetting.

Bedwetting is a very common problem.

    Parents must realize that enuresis is involuntary. The child who wets the bed needs parental support and reassurance.

Bedwetting is a treatable condition.

    While children with this embarrassing problem and their parents once had few choices except waiting to "grow out of it," there are now treatments that work for many children.
    Several devices, treatments, and techniques have been developed to help these children stay dry at night.

What Causes Bedwetting?

While bedwetting can be a symptom of an underlying disease, the large majority of children who wet the bed have no underlying illness. In fact, a true organic cause is identified in only a small percentage of children who wet the bed. However, this does not mean that the child who wets the bed can control it or is doing it on purpose. Children who wet the bed are not lazy, willful, or disobedient.

There are two types of bedwetting: primary and secondary. Primary bedwetting refers to bedwetting that has been ongoing since early childhood without a break. A child with primary bedwetting has never been dry at night for any significant length of time. Secondary bedwetting is bedwetting that starts again after the child has been dry at night for a significant period of time (at least six months).

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Prostate cancer is the development of cancer in the prostate, a gland in the male reproductive system. Most prostate cancers are slow growing; however, some grow relatively quickly. The cancer cells may spread from the prostate to other parts of the body, particularly the bones and lymph nodes. It may initially cause no symptoms. In later stages it can lead to difficulty urinating, blood in the urine, or pain in the pelvis, back or when urinating. A disease known as benign prostatic hyperplasia may produce similar symptoms. Other late symptoms may include feeling tired due to low levels of red blood cells.

Factors that increase the risk of prostate cancer include: older age, a family history of the disease, and race. About 99% of cases occur in those over the age of 50. Having a first-degree relative with the disease increases the risk two to threefold. In the United States, it is more common in the African American population than the white American population. Other factors that may be involved include a diet high in processed meat, red meat, or milk products or low in certain vegetables. An association with gonorrhea has been found, but a reason for this relationship has not been identified. Prostate cancer is diagnosed by biopsy. Medical imaging may then be done to determine if the cancer has spread to other parts of the body.
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Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental disorder that can develop after a person is exposed to a traumatic event, such as sexual assault, warfare, traffic collisions, or other threats on a person's life. Symptoms may include disturbing thoughts, feelings, or dreams related to the events, mental or physical distress to trauma-related cues, attempts to avoid trauma-related cues, alterations in how a person thinks and feels, and an increase in the fight-or-flight response. These symptoms last for more than a month after the event. Young children are less likely to show distress but instead may express their memories through play. A person with PTSD is at a higher risk for suicide and intentional self-harm.

Most people who have experienced a traumatic event will not develop PTSD. People who experience interpersonal trauma (for example rape or child abuse) are more likely to develop PTSD, as compared to people who experience non-assault based trauma such as accidents and natural disasters. About half of people develop PTSD following rape. Children are less likely than adults to develop PTSD after trauma, especially if they are under ten years of age. Diagnosis is based on the presence of specific symptoms following a traumatic event.
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Pulmonary hypertension (PH or PHTN) is a condition of increased blood pressure within the arteries of the lungs. Symptoms include shortness of breath, syncope, tiredness, chest pain, swelling of the legs, and a fast heartbeat. The condition may make it difficult to exercise. Onset is typically gradual.

The cause is often unknown. Risk factors include a family history, prior blood clots in the lungs, HIV/AIDS, sickle cell disease, cocaine use, COPD, sleep apnea, living at high altitudes, and problems with the mitral valve. The underlying mechanism typically involves inflammation of the arteries in the lungs. Diagnosis involves first ruling out other potential causes.

There is no cure. Treatment depends on the type of disease. A number of supportive measures such as oxygen therapy, diuretics, and medications to inhibit clotting may be used. Medications specifically for the condition include epoprostenol, treprostinil, iloprost, bosentan, ambrisentan, macitentan, and sildenafil. A lung transplant may be an option in certain cases.

While the exact frequency of the condition is unknown, it is estimated that about 1,000 new cases occur a year in the United States. Females are more often affected than males. Onset is typically between 20 and 60 years of age. It was first identified by Ernst von Romberg in 1891.
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You eat organic almost exclusively and try to steer clear of anything made of plastic (especially The 4 Most Dangerous Types Of Plastic). But there’s just one unhealthy habit you can’t shake: smoking.

You may even tell yourself that the “natural” tobacco you use isn’t as bad for you, but even without the additives found in common cigarette brands, tobacco smoke contains a panoply of dangerous chemicals such as carbon monoxide and dozens of other known carcinogens.

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A breast rash describes redness and irritation of the skin on your breast. A breast rash can also be itchy, scaly, painful or blistered.

Other terms used to describe a breast rash include dermatitis and hives.

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Dirt, bacteria, fungus, and other germs can get trapped inside your belly button and start to multiply. This can cause an infection. You might notice white, yellow, brown, or bloody discharge seeping out of your belly button. That discharge might also have an unpleasant smell. Here are a few of the causes of belly button discharge, and how to treat them.


Causes of belly button discharge include infections, surgery, and cysts.

Bacterial infection

The average belly button is home to nearly 70 different types of bacteria. If you don’t clean the area well, these bacteria could cause an infection. Piercings in your navel can also get infected.

Bacterial infections cause a yellow or green, foul-smelling discharge. You can also have swelling, pain, and a scab around your belly button.


Yeast infection

Candidiasis is a yeast infection caused by Candida, a type of yeast that typically grows in damp, dark areas of the body. It can occur between skin folds, such as in your groin area and under your arms. Yeast can also take up residence in your belly button, especially if you don’t keep it clean and dry.

Candidiasis in your belly button causes a red, itchy rash on your navel and may also cause a thick, white discharge.
Diabetes

People with diabetes are more likely to get yeast infections. This is because yeast feeds on sugar, and high blood sugar is a hallmark of poorly treated diabetes. A study of Brazilian woman showed that women with diabetes were more prone to vaginal yeast infections than women who didn’t have diabetes.

Other studies suggest that other forms of yeast infections, including yeast infections in the belly button, may be more common among people with diabetes.


Surgery

If you’ve recently had abdominal surgery, such as hernia repair, you might notice pus draining from your belly button. If this happens, call your doctor. It could be a sign of an infection that needs to be treated.

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Restless legs syndrome (RLS) is a disorder of the part of the nervous system that causes an urge to move the legs. Because it usually interferes with sleep, it also is considered a sleep disorder.

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Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a long-term autoimmune disorder that primarily affects joints. It typically results in warm, swollen, and painful joints. Pain and stiffness often worsen following rest. Most commonly, the wrist and hands are involved, with the same joints typically involved on both sides of the body. The disease may also affect other parts of the body. This may result in a low red blood cell count, inflammation around the lungs, and inflammation around the heart. Fever and low energy may also be present. Often, symptoms come on gradually over weeks to months.

While the cause of rheumatoid arthritis is not clear, it is believed to involve a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The underlying mechanism involves the body's immune system attacking the joints. This results in inflammation and thickening of the joint capsule. It also affects the underlying bone and cartilage. The diagnosis is made mostly on the basis of a person's signs and symptoms. X-rays and laboratory testing may support a diagnosis or exclude other diseases with similar symptoms. Other diseases that may present similarly include systemic lupus erythematosus, psoriatic arthritis, and fibromyalgia among others.
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Sagging breasts is a very common problem and are a natural consequence of aging. The medical term for this condition is ‘Ptosis’ of the breast and the causes are still not clearly defined or understood.

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Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is an enlarged prostate. The prostate goes through two main growth periods as a man ages. The first occurs early in puberty, when the prostate doubles in size. The second phase of growth begins around age 25 and continues during most of a man's life. As you age, your prostate may get larger. Benign prostatic hyperplasia often occurs with the second growth phase.


As the prostate enlarges, it can then squeeze down on your urethra. The bladder wall becomes thicker. Eventually, the bladder may weaken and lose the ability to empty completely, leaving some urine in the bladder. The narrowing of the urethra and urinary retention--the inability to empty the bladder completely--cause many of the problems associated with benign prostatic hyperplasia. BPH is benign. This means it is not cancer. It does not cause nor lead to cancer. But BPH and cancer can happen at the same time.

BPH is common in aging men. About half of all men between the ages of 51 and 60 have BPH. Up to 90% of men over age 80 have BPH.
The Prostate


The prostate is part of the male reproductive system. It is about the size of a walnut and weighs about an ounce. The prostate is below the bladder and in front of the rectum. The prostate goes all the way around a tube called the urethra. The urethra carries urine from the bladder out through the penis. The main job of the prostate is to make fluid for semen. During ejaculation, sperm made in the testicles moves to the urethra. At the same time, fluid from the prostate and the seminal vesicles also moves into the urethra. This mixture-semen-goes through the urethra and out the penis.


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Do you have an itch? Some scratch their heads while giving something some serious thought in a “hmm, let me think about that” sort of moment. But for many others, a serious scratching is desired because there is a genuine and persistent itch on the head, specifically an itchy scalp.


Often, we assume it must be dandruff, a common problem, but there are many conditions that can cause a dry, itchy scalp in addition to dandruff, such as ringworm or even a bacterial infection caused by an autoimmune condition.


With itching being the most common symptom, skin infections, swelling, redness, balding and damaged hair may also result from an itchy scalp. Common treatments are usually in some form of antimicrobial or keratolytic therapy, steroids, and special diets. However, there is no doubt that one of the most effective treatments for itchy scalp is a good old shampoo scrub to help remove loose and scaly skin. And to really stop the itch long term, you need to find out what’s causing it. Let’s look at some of the best natural treatments for an itchy scalp and the most common causes


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Fibrous tissue that forms when normal tissue is destroyed by disease, injury, or surgery. For example, scar tissue forms when a wound heals after a cut, sore, burn, or other skin condition, or when an incision (cut) is made into the skin during surgery. It may also form inside the body when certain conditions, such as cirrhosis, cause normal tissue to become fibrous tissue.

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Sciatica is a medical condition characterized by pain going down the leg from the lower back. This pain may go down the back, outside, or front of the leg. Onset is often sudden following activities like heavy lifting, though gradual onset may also occur. Typically, symptoms are only on one side of the body. Certain causes, however, may result in pain on both sides. Lower back pain is sometimes but not always present. Weakness or numbness may occur in various parts of the affected leg and foot.

About 90% of the time sciatica is due to a spinal disc herniation pressing on one of the lumbar or sacral nerve roots. Other problems that may result in sciatica include spondylolisthesis, spinal stenosis, piriformis syndrome, pelvic tumors, and compression by a baby's head during pregnancy. The straight-leg-raising test is often helpful in diagnosis. The test is positive if, when the leg is raised while a person is lying on their back, pain shoots below the knee. In most cases medical imaging is not needed. Exceptions to this are when bowel or bladder function is affected, there is significant loss of feeling or weakness, symptoms are long standing, or there is a concern of a tumor or infection. Conditions that may present similarly are diseases of the hip and early herpes zoster before the rash appears.
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Sensitive skin is a skin condition in which skin is prone to itching and irritation experienced as a subjective sensation when using cosmetics and toiletries. When questioned, over 50% of women in the UK and US, and 38% of men, report that they have sensitive skin.
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Shortness of breath, also known as dyspnea, is a feeling like one cannot breathe well enough. The American Thoracic Society defines it as "a subjective experience of breathing discomfort that consists of qualitatively distinct sensations that vary in intensity", and recommends evaluating dyspnea by assessing the intensity of the distinct sensations, the degree of distress involved, and its burden or impact on activities of daily living. Distinct sensations include effort/work, chest tightness, and air hunger (the feeling of not enough oxygen).

Dyspnea is a normal symptom of heavy exertion but becomes pathological if it occurs in unexpected situations or light exertion. In 85% of cases it is due to asthma, pneumonia, cardiac ischemia, interstitial lung disease, congestive heart failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or psychogenic causes, such as panic disorder and anxiety. Treatment typically depends on the underlying cause.
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It's inflammation or swelling of your sinuses. Normally they're filled with air. When they become blocked and filled with fluid, bacteria can grow there and cause infection. The result: a sinus infection. You may hear your doctor refer to it as sinusitis. 

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Sinusitis, also known as a sinus infection or rhinosinusitis, is inflammation of the sinuses resulting in symptoms. Common signs and symptoms include thick nasal mucus, a plugged nose, and pain in the face. Other signs and symptoms may include fever, headaches, poor sense of smell, sore throat, and cough. The cough is often worse at night. Serious complications are rare. It is defined as acute rhinosinusitis (ARS) if it lasts less than 4 weeks, and as chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) if it lasts for more than 12 weeks.

Sinusitis can be caused by infection, allergies, air pollution, or structural problems in the nose. Most cases are caused by a viral infection. A bacterial infection may be present if symptoms last more than ten days or if a person worsens after starting to improve. Recurrent episodes are more likely in people with asthma, cystic fibrosis, and poor immune function. X-rays are not typically needed unless complications are suspected. In chronic cases confirmatory testing is recommended by either direct visualization or computed tomography.
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Skin rejuvenation helps rectify skin irregularities on the face and elsewhere on the body. La belle's Skin rejuvenation treatments have been developed considering the general needs and the various problems that could possibly affect the skin. We aim to help restore and promote the wellness of your skin and spirit. Our experts suggest the appropriate skin rejuvenation treatments after examining your skin type and identifying your requirement. Facial rejuvenation is a treatment aims to restore a youthful appearance to the human face cosmetically and can be carried out by surgical and/or non-surgical options

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A skin tag is a small growth on the skin that is usually benign (harmless). It may have a short narrow stalk which connects it to the skin. They are usually small but may grow up to a half-inch long.
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Hair care is an overall term for hygiene and cosmetology involving the hair which grows from the human scalp, and to a lesser extent facial, pubic and other body hair. Hair care routines differ according to an individual's culture and the physical characteristics of one's hair. Hair may be colored, trimmed, shaved, plucked, or otherwise removed with treatments such as waxing, sugaring, and threading. Hair care services are offered in salons, barbershops, and day spas, and products are available commercially for home use. Laser hair removal and electrolysis are also available, though these are provided (in the US) by licensed professionals in medical offices or speciality spas.
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The human skin is the outer covering of the body. In humans, it is the largest organ of the integumentary system. The skin has up to seven layers of ectodermal tissue and guards the underlying muscles, bones, ligaments and internal organs. Human skin is similar to that of most other mammals. Though nearly all human skin is covered with hair follicles, it can appear hairless. There are two general types of skin, hairy and glabrous skin (hairless). The adjective cutaneous literally means "of the skin" (from Latin cutis, skin).

Because it interfaces with the environment, skin plays an important immunity role in protecting the body against pathogens and excessive water loss. Its other functions are insulation, temperature regulation, sensation, synthesis of vitamin D, and the protection of vitamin B folates. Severely damaged skin will try to heal by forming scar tissue. This is often discolored and depigmented.

In humans, skin pigmentation varies among populations, and skin type can range from dry to oily. Such skin variety provides a rich and diverse habitat for bacteria that number roughly 1000 species from 19 phyla, present on the human skin.
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Social anxiety can be defined as nervousness in social situations. Some disorders associated with the social anxiety spectrum include anxiety disorders, mood disorders, autism, eating disorders, and substance use disorders. Individuals higher in social anxiety avert their gazes, show fewer facial expressions, and show difficulty with initiating and maintaining conversation. Trait social anxiety, the stable tendency to experience this nervousness, can be distinguished from state anxiety, the momentary response to a particular social stimulus. Nearly 90% of individuals report feeling a form of social anxiety (i.e., shyness) at some point in their lives. Half of the individuals with any social fears meet criteria for social anxiety disorder. The function of social anxiety is to increase arousal and attention to social interactions, inhibit unwanted social behavior, and motivate preparation for social situations such as performance situations.
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Sore throat, also known as throat pain, is pain or irritation of the throat.

It is usually caused by pharyngitis (inflammation of the throat) or tonsillitis (inflammation of the tonsils). It can also result from trauma.

About 7.5% of people have a sore throat in any three-month period.
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A sore tongue is any pain or discomfort of all or a part of the tongue. Pain is a sensation triggered by the nervous system in response to tissue inflammation or damage. If you have a sore tongue, you may feel a dull, stabbing, shooting, burning, or pins-and-needles sensation.

The tongue is composed mainly of muscle. A sore or painful tongue can result from infection, inflammation, trauma, malignancy and other abnormal processes of the tissues of the tongue. One common condition that causes a sore tongue is glossitis, an inflammation of the tongue that also results in tongue swelling and discoloration that is caused by irritants, infection or other disorders.

Depending on the cause, a sore tongue can begin suddenly and resolve on its own, such as after biting your tongue. Tongue pain or soreness that develops over time and worsens may be a sign of a more serious condition, such as cancer.

In some cases, a sore tongue can be a sign of a serious or life-threatening disease or condition, such as an anaphylactic reaction. If you are experiencing difficulty breathing, swelling of the tongue, mouth or face, or a change in consciousness,

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Neck stiffness, stiff neck and nuchal rigidity are terms often used interchangeably to describe the medical condition when one experiences discomfort or pain when trying to turn, move, or flex the neck. Possible causes include muscle strain or sprain, cervical spine disorders, meningitis, and subarachnoid hemorrhage.

Nuchal rigidity due to irritation of the lining of the brain and spinal cord is one of the main symptoms of meningitis.
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Abdominal pain (also called a stomach ache) is a pain or ache in the abdomen. It can be caused by different things, including food poisoning, indigestion, constipation, gastritis, an ulcer, hunger, appendicitis, stomach cancer or diverticulitis.
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Gastroenteritis, also known as infectious diarrhea, is inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract that involves the stomach and small intestine. Signs and symptoms include some combination of diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. Fever, lack of energy, and dehydration may also occur. This typically lasts less than two weeks. It is unrelated to influenza though it has been called the "stomach flu".

Gastroenteritis can be due to infections by viruses, bacteria, parasites, and fungus. The most common cause is viruses. In children rotavirus is the most common cause of severe disease. In adults, norovirus and Campylobacter are common. Transmission may occur due to eating improperly prepared foods, drinking contaminated water, or through close contact with an individual who is infected. Testing to confirm the diagnosis is typically not needed.
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Stomach ulcers, which are also known as gastric ulcers, are painful sores in the stomach lining. Stomach ulcers are a type of peptic ulcer disease. Peptic ulcers are any ulcers that affect both the stomach and small intestines.


Stomach ulcers occur when the thick layer of mucus that protects your stomach from digestive juices is reduced. This allows the digestive acids to eat away at the tissues that line the stomach, causing an ulcer.


Stomach ulcers may be easily cured, but they can become severe without proper treatment.

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Hair straightening is a hair styling technique used since the 1890s involving the flattening and straightening of hair in order to give it a smooth, streamlined, and sleek appearance. It became very popular during the 1950s among black males and females of all races. It is accomplished using a hair iron or hot comb, chemical relaxers, Japanese hair straightening, Brazilian hair straightening, or roller set/blowdryer styling. In addition, some shampoos, conditioners, and hair gels can help to make hair temporarily straight.

The process is often called "rebonding" in some countries from Southeast Asia (e.g. Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia and Philippines). The term "rebonding" was first used by REDS Hairdressing from Singapore in the late 1980s,[citation needed] which slowly spread to the rest of the region. If done often, flat irons and chemicals can be damaging to hair. Excessive straightening often results in split ends. However, heat protectant sprays can decrease the damage.
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Kids often come down with sore, scratchy throats. Colds and other viruses are usually to blame. Irritants such as smoke in the air can also make you feel raw.

Strep throat is different -- it’s caused by bacteria. You need to know whether you or your child has strep or another illness so you can get the right treatment.

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Do you frequently get mad at anything? Are you trying to get relief from the stress? In the fast-paced world, almost all individuals have different forms of stress. Stress affects the lifestyle of an individual and ultimately leads to anxiety, anger, and multiple disorders. Effective stress management requires an understanding of the sources and effects of stress. Moreover, the American Institute of Stress is also focusing on developing an Eco-friendly environment and providing necessary guidance for people suffering from stress.

This article examines the various aspects of stress and looks at both external and internal variables that might lead to its emergence. Moreover, We will also understand the psychological and physiological effects of long-term stress. It will help you get the complete picture of how it affects well-being. Most importantly, you will leave this guide with evidence-based stress management techniques that will enable you to become more resilient and handle life's obstacles with more poise.

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Stretch marks, also known as striae, are a form of scarring on the skin with an off-color hue. Over time they may diminish, but will not disappear completely. Stretch marks that form during pregnancy, usually during the last trimester, and usually on the belly, but also commonly occurring on the breasts, thighs, hips, lower back and buttocks, are known as striae gravidarum.

Stretch marks are caused by tearing of the dermis. This is often from the rapid stretching of the skin associated with rapid growth or rapid weight changes. Stretch marks may also be influenced by hormonal changes associated with puberty, pregnancy, bodybuilding, or hormone replacement therapy.

There is no evidence that creams used during pregnancy prevent stretch marks. Once they have formed there is no clearly useful treatment, though various methods have been tried.
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You're not ready to have a child yet but unsure if you want to use birth control pills or get a contraceptive injection. Have you considered using herbal birth control yet?

Several herbs are effective in preventing pregnancy. The best part? They're all-natural, so you don't have to worry about harsh chemicals or side effects.

This post will discuss the most effective herbal birth control methods and how to use them.

Herbal Birth Control: What is it??

Herbal birth control is a method of avoiding pregnancy that uses natural herbs. These herbs work to prevent the woman from ovulating or releasing eggs. You can choose the best birth control herbs from a variety of options with the assistance of your doctor.


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A stroke is a "brain attack". It can happen to anyone at any time. It occurs when blood flow to an area of brain is cut off. When this happens, brain cells are deprived of oxygen and begin to die. When brain cells die during a stroke, abilities controlled by that area of the brain such as memory and muscle control are lost.

How a person is affected by their stroke depends on where the stroke occurs in the brain and how much the brain is damaged. For example, someone who had a small stroke may only have minor problems such as temporary weakness of an arm or leg. People who have larger strokes may be permanently paralyzed on one side of their body or lose their ability to speak. Some people recover completely from strokes, but more than 2/3 of survivors will have some type of disability.

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Stroke is a medical condition in which poor blood flow to the brain results in cell death. There are two main types of stroke: ischemic, due to lack of blood flow, and hemorrhagic, due to bleeding. They result in part of the brain not functioning properly. Signs and symptoms of a stroke may include an inability to move or feel on one side of the body, problems understanding or speaking, feeling like the world is spinning, or loss of vision to one side. Signs and symptoms often appear soon after the stroke has occurred. If symptoms last less than one or two hours it is known as a transient ischemic attack (TIA) or mini-stroke. A hemorrhagic stroke may also be associated with a severe headache. The symptoms of a stroke can be permanent. Long-term complications may include pneumonia or loss of bladder control.

The main risk factor for stroke is high blood pressure. Other risk factors include tobacco smoking, obesity, high blood cholesterol, diabetes mellitus, previous TIA, and atrial fibrillation. An ischemic stroke is typically caused by blockage of a blood vessel, though there are also less common causes. A hemorrhagic stroke is caused by either bleeding directly into the brain or into the space between the brain's membranes. Bleeding may occur due to a ruptured brain aneurysm. Diagnosis is typically with medical imaging such as a CT scan or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan along with a physical exam. Other tests such as an electrocardiogram (ECG) and blood tests are done to determine risk factors and rule out other possible causes. Low blood sugar may cause similar symptoms.
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The presence of increased secretions and mucus in the nasal passages, most commonly arising as a result of a common cold, allergic reaction, or inflammation or infection of the paranasal sinuses (sinus infection).

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Sun tanning or simply tanning is the process whereby skin color is darkened or tanned. It is most often a result of exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from sunlight or from artificial sources, such as a tanning lamp found in indoor tanning beds. People who deliberately tan their skin by exposure to the sun engage in a passive recreational activity of sun bathing. Some people use chemical products which can produce a tanning effect without exposure to ultraviolet radiation, known as sunless tanning.

Moderate exposure to the sun contributes to the production of melanin and vitamin D by the body, but excessive exposure to ultraviolet rays has negative health effects, including sunburn and increased risk of skin cancer, as well as depressed immune system function and accelerated aging of the skin. Some people tan or sunburn more easily than others. This may be the result of different skin types and natural skin color, and these may be a result of genetics.

Several cases of tanning addiction have been reported by medical researchers. Though the mechanism by which tanning addiction occurs is unknown, some evidence indicates that the release of endorphins during the tanning process causes the pleasurable effects that underlie the addiction.
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Sunburn is a form of radiation burn that affects living tissue, such as skin, that results from an overexposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, commonly from the sun. Common symptoms in humans and other animals include red or reddish skin that is hot to the touch, pain, general fatigue, and mild dizziness. An excess of UV radiation can be life-threatening in extreme cases. Exposure of the skin to lesser amounts of UV radiation will often produce a suntan.


Excessive UV radiation is the leading cause of primarily non-malignant skin tumors. Sunscreen is widely agreed to prevent sunburn and some types of skin cancer. Clothing, including hats, is considered the preferred skin protection method. Moderate sun tanning without burning can also prevent subsequent sunburn, as it increases the amount of melanin, a photoprotective pigment that is the skin's natural defense against overexposure. Importantly, both sunburn and the increase in melanin production are triggered by direct DNA damage. When the skin cells' DNA is overly damaged by UV radiation, type I cell-death is triggered and the skin is replaced.

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Sanskrit: सूर्यनमस्कार IPA: Sun Salutation, is a Yoga warm up routine based on a sequence of gracefully linked asanas. The nomenclature refers to the symbolism of Sun as the soul and the source of all life. It was developed in the 20th century.

A yogi may develop a personalized yoga warm up routine as surya-namaskar to precede his or her asana practice.
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Hyperhidrosis is a condition characterized by abnormally increased sweating,in excess of that required for regulation of body temperature. Although primarily a physical burden, hyperhidrosis can deteriorate quality of life from a psychological, emotional, and social perspective. It has been called by some 'the silent handicap'.

Both the words diaphoresis and hidrosis can mean either perspiration (in which sense they are synonymous with sweating) or excessive perspiration, in which case they refer to a specific, narrowly defined, clinical disorder.
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Tay–Sachs disease is a genetic disorder that results in the destruction of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord. The most common type, known as infantile Tay–Sachs disease, becomes apparent around three to six months of age with the baby losing the ability to turn over, sit, or crawl. This is then followed by seizures, hearing loss, and inability to move. Death usually occurs in early childhood. Less commonly the disease may occur in later childhood or adulthood. These forms are generally milder in nature.

Tay–Sachs disease is caused by a genetic mutation in the HEXA genes on chromosome 15. It is inherited from a person's parents in an autosomal recessive manner. The mutation results in problems with an enzyme called beta-hexosaminidase A which results in the buildup of the molecule GM2 ganglioside within cells, leading to toxicity. Diagnosis is by measuring the blood hexosaminidase A level or genetic testing. It is a type of sphingolipidoses.
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Tooth decay and gum disease occur in both children and adults. Yet, when you keep your teeth and gums healthy and strong, these problems are preventable. Four components are crucial to your plan for strong teeth and healthy gums: a healthy diet, good oral hygiene, use of fluorides and regular professional cleanings. Not only will this help protect you against oral disease, but it can also help you to keep your teeth for a lifetime.

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Most people probably grind and clench their teeth from time to time. Occasional teeth grinding, medically called bruxism, does not usually cause harm, but when teeth grinding occurs on a regular basis the teeth can be damaged and other oral health complications can arise.

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Tennis elbow or lateral epicondylitis is a condition in which the outer part of the elbow becomes sore and tender at the lateral epicondyle. The forearm muscles and tendons become damaged from repetitive overuse. This leads to pain and tenderness on the outside of the elbow.

Any activity, including playing tennis, that involves repetitive use of the extensor muscles of the forearm can cause acute or chronic tendonitis of the tendinous insertion of these muscles at the lateral epicondyle of the elbow. The condition is common in carpenters and laborers who swing a hammer or other tool with the forearm, and is similar to golfer's elbow, which affects the medial epicondyle on the inside of the elbow. Continuing activity after onset of the condition and avoiding mandatory rest may lead to permanent onset of pain and only treatable via surgery.
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Testicular cancer is cancer that develops in the testicles, a part of the male reproductive system.

Not all lumps on the testicles are tumors, and not all tumors are cancer. There are many other conditions, such as testicular microlithiasis, epididymal cysts, and appendix testis (hydatid of Morgagni), which may be painful but are non-cancerous.

Testicular cancer has one of the highest cure rates of all cancers with an average five-year survival rate of 95%. If the cancer has not spread outside the testicle, the 5-year survival is 99% while if it has grown into nearby structures or has spread to nearby lymph nodes, the rate is 96% and if it has spread to organs or lymph nodes away from the testicles, the 5-year survival is around 74%. Even for the relatively few cases in which cancer has spread widely, chemotherapy offers a cure rate of at least 80%.

Globally testicular cancer resulted in 8,300 deaths in 2013 up from 7,000 deaths in 1990. In the United States, about 8,000 cases are diagnosed a year. In the UK, approximately 2,000 people are diagnosed each year,over a lifetime, the risk of testicular cancer is roughly 1 in 200 (0.5%). It is the most common cancer in males aged 20–39 years, the period when it is most common to start, and is rarely seen before the age of 15 years.
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Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone and an anabolic steroid. In male humans, testosterone plays a key role in the development of male reproductive tissues such as the testis and prostate, as well as promoting secondary sexual characteristics such as increased muscle and bone mass, and the growth of body hair. In addition, testosterone is involved in health and well-being, and the prevention of osteoporosis. Insufficient levels of testosterone in men may lead to abnormalities including frailty and bone loss.

Testosterone is also used as a medication to treat male hypogonadism and certain types of breast cancer. Since testosterone levels gradually decrease as men age, synthetic testosterone is sometimes prescribed to older men to counteract this deficiency.

Testosterone is a steroid from the androstane class containing a keto and hydroxyl groups at the three and seventeen positions respectively. It is biosynthesized in several steps from cholesterol and is converted in the liver to inactive metabolites. It exerts its action through binding to and activation of the androgen receptor.
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The eyebrow is an area of thick, delicate hairs above the eye that follows the shape of the lower margin of the brow ridges of some mammals. Their main function is hypothesized to prevent sweat, water, and other debris from falling down into the eye socket, but they are also important to human communication and facial expression. It is not uncommon for people to modify their eyebrows by means of hair addition, removal and makeup.

According to the 2016 United States census, roughly 3% of the population suffers from a disease called madarosis, which is a deficiency where individuals cannot grow eyebrows or eyelashes.
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Thyroid cancer is cancer that develops from the tissues of the thyroid gland. It is a disease in which cells grow abnormally and have the potential to spread to other parts of the body.Symptoms can include swelling or a lump in the neck. Cancer can also occur in the thyroid after spread from other locations, in which case it is not classified as thyroid cancer.

Risk factors include radiation exposure at a young age, having an enlarged thyroid, and family history. There are four main types – papillary thyroid cancer, follicular thyroid cancer, medullary thyroid cancer, and anaplastic thyroid cancer. Diagnosis is often based on ultrasound and fine needle aspiration. Screening people without symptoms and at normal risk for the disease is not recommended as of 2017.
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A dark spot refers to a hyper-pigmentation of the skin commonly occurring in middle aged women. Dark spots, aka pigmentations, occur when a localized patch of melanin produced accumulates on a specific area on the skin. It can be located on the forehead, face or cheek bone area. Some dark spots could mean serious skin problems and thus you should consult a dermatologist if you become suspicious. 

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Tinea cruris, also known as crotch itch, crotch rot, Dhobi itch, eczema marginatum, gym itch, jock itch, jock rot, scrot rot and ringworm of the groin 303 is a dermatophyte fungal infection of the groin region in any sex, though more often seen in males.
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Tinea versicolor is a condition characterized by a skin eruption on the trunk and proximal extremities. The majority of tinea versicolor is caused by the fungus Malassezia globosa, although Malassezia furfur is responsible for a small number of cases. These yeasts are normally found on the human skin and become troublesome only under certain circumstances, such as a warm and humid environment, although the exact conditions that cause initiation of the disease process are poorly understood.

The condition pityriasis versicolor was first identified in 1846. Versicolor comes from the Latin, from versāre to turn + color. It is also commonly referred to as Peter Elam's disease in many parts of South Asia.
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Tingling hands, feet, or both is an extremely common and bothersome symptom. Such tingling can sometimes be benign and temporary. For example, it could result from pressure on nerves when your arm is crooked under your head as you fall asleep. Or it could be from pressure on nerves when you cross your legs too long. In either case, the "pins and needles" effect -- which is usually painless -- is soon relieved by removing the pressure that caused it.

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Tinnitus is the hearing of sound when no external sound is present. While often described as a ringing, it may also sound like a clicking, hiss or roaring. Rarely, unclear voices or music are heard. The sound may be soft or loud, low pitched or high pitched and appear to be coming from one ear or both. Most of the time, it comes on gradually. In some people, the sound causes depression or anxiety and can interfere with concentration.

Tinnitus is not a disease but a symptom that can result from a number of underlying causes. One of the most common causes is noise-induced hearing loss. Other causes include: ear infections, disease of the heart or blood vessels, Ménière's disease, brain tumors, emotional stress, exposure to certain medications, a previous head injury, and earwax. It is more common in those with depression.
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The temporomandibular joints (TMJ) are the two joints connecting the jawbone to the skull. It is a bilateral synovial articulation between the temporal bone of the skull above and the mandible below; it is from these bones that its name is derived.
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Tobacco smoking is the practice of burning tobacco and inhaling the smoke (consisting of particle and gaseous phases). (A more broad definition may include simply taking tobacco smoke into the mouth, and then releasing it, as is done by some with tobacco pipes and cigars.) The practice was believed to begin as early as 5000–3000 BC. Tobacco was introduced to Eurasia in the late 17th century where it followed common trade routes. The practice encountered criticism from its first import into the Western world onwards, but embedded itself in certain strata of a number of societies before becoming widespread upon the introduction of automated cigarette-rolling apparatus.


German scientists identified a link between smoking and lung cancer in the late 1920s, leading to the first anti-smoking campaign in modern history, albeit one truncated by the collapse of Nazi Germany at the end of World War II. In 1950, British researchers demonstrated a clear relationship between smoking and cancer. Evidence continued to mount in the 1980s, which prompted political action against the practice. Rates of consumption since 1965 in the developed world have either peaked or declined. However, they continue to climb in the developing world.

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Onychomycosis, also known as tinea unguium, is a fungal infection of the nail. This condition may affect toenails or fingernails, but toenail infections are particularly common.

Treatment may be based on the signs. Treatment may be with the medication terbinafine.

It occurs in about 10 percent of the adult population. It is the most common disease of the nails and constitutes about half of all nail abnormalities.
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Tonsillitis is inflammation of the tonsils, typically of rapid onset. It is a type of pharyngitis. Symptoms may include sore throat, fever, enlargement of the tonsils, trouble swallowing, and large lymph nodes around the neck. Complications include peritonsillar abscess.

Tonsillitis is most commonly caused by a viral infection, with about 5% to 40% of cases caused by a bacterial infection. When caused by the bacterium group A streptococcus, it is referred to as strep throat. Rarely bacteria such as Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Corynebacterium diphtheriae, or Haemophilus influenzae may be the cause. Typically the infection is spread between people through the air. A scoring system, such as the Centor score, may help separate possible causes. Confirmation may be by a throat swab or rapid strep test.
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Tooth decay, also known as dental caries or cavities, is a breakdown of teeth due to acids made by bacteria. The cavities may be a number of different colors from yellow to black. Symptoms may include pain and difficulty with eating. Complications may include inflammation of the tissue around the tooth, tooth loss, and infection or abscess formation.

The cause of caries is acid from bacteria dissolving the hard tissues of the teeth (enamel, dentin and cementum). The acid is produced from food debris or sugar on the tooth surface. Simple sugars in food are these bacteria's primary energy source and thus a diet high in simple sugar is a risk factor. If mineral breakdown is greater than build up from sources such as saliva, caries results. Risk factors include conditions that result in less saliva such as: diabetes mellitus, Sjogren's syndrome and some medications. Medications that decrease saliva production include antihistamines and antidepressants. Caries is also associated with poverty, poor cleaning of the mouth, and receding gums resulting in exposure of the roots of the teeth.
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Toothache, also known as dental pain, is pain in the teeth and/or their supporting structures, caused by dental diseases or pain referred to the teeth by non-dental diseases.

Common causes include inflammation of the pulp, usually in response to tooth decay, dental trauma, or other factors, dentin hypersensitivity (short, sharp pain, usually associated with exposed root surfaces), apical periodontitis (inflammation of the periodontal ligament and alveolar bone around the root apex), dental abscesses (localized collections of pus, such as apical abscess, pericoronal abscess, and periodontal abscess), alveolar osteitis ("dry socket", a possible complication of tooth extraction, with loss of the blood clot and exposure of bone), acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis (a gum infection, also called "trenchmouth"), temporomandibular disorder and others.

Pulpitis is classified as reversible when the pain is mild to moderate and lasts for a short time after a stimulus (for instance, cold or sweet); or irreversible when the pain is severe, spontaneous, and lasts a long time after a stimulus. Left untreated, pulpitis may become irreversible, then progress to pulp necrosis (death of the pulp) and apical periodontitis. Abscesses usually cause throbbing pain. The apical abscess usually occurs after pulp necrosis, the pericoronal abscess is usually associated with acute pericoronitis of a lower wisdom tooth, and periodontal abscesses usually represent a complication of chronic periodontitis (gum disease). Much less commonly, non-dental conditions can cause toothache, such as maxillary sinusitis, which can cause pain in the upper back teeth, or angina pectoris, which can cause pain in the lower teeth.
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A bone marrow transplant, also called a blood stem cell transplant or BMT, can treat many diseases. For some diseases, BMT is the only potential cure. There are over 70 diseases that can be treated by BMT. Some of them are listed here.  


    Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL)

    Acute myeloid leukemia (AML)

    Adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD)

    Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL)

    Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML)

    Hodgkin lymphoma

    Hurler syndrome

    Krabbe disease (Globoid-Cell Leukodystrophy)

    Metachromatic Leukodystrophy (MLD)

    Multiple myeloma

    Myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS)

    Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL)

    Severe aplastic anemia

    Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID)

    Sickle cell disease (SCD)

    Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome (WAS)

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A triglyceride (TG, triacylglycerol, TAG, or triacylglyceride) is an ester derived from glycerol and three fatty acids (from tri- and glyceride). Triglycerides are the main constituents of body fat in humans and other animals, as well as vegetable fat. They are also present in the blood to enable the bidirectional transference of adipose fat and blood glucose from the liver, and are a major component of human skin oils.

There are many different types of triglyceride, with the main division between saturated and unsaturated types. Saturated fats are "saturated" with hydrogen – all available places where hydrogen atoms could be bonded to carbon atoms are occupied. These have a higher melting point and are more likely to be solid at room temperature. Unsaturated fats have double bonds between some of the carbon atoms, reducing the number of places where hydrogen atoms can bond to carbon atoms. These have a lower melting point and are more likely to be liquid at room temperature.
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Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease usually caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB). Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs, but can also affect other parts of the body. Most infections do not have symptoms, in which case it is known as latent tuberculosis. About 10% of latent infections progress to active disease which, if left untreated, kills about half of those infected. The classic symptoms of active TB are a chronic cough with blood-containing sputum, fever, night sweats, and weight loss. The historical term "consumption" came about due to the weight loss. Infection of other organs can cause a wide range of symptoms.

Tuberculosis is spread through the air when people who have active TB in their lungs cough, spit, speak, or sneeze. People with latent TB do not spread the disease. Active infection occurs more often in people with HIV/AIDS and in those who smoke. Diagnosis of active TB is based on chest X-rays, as well as microscopic examination and culture of body fluids. Diagnosis of latent TB relies on the tuberculin skin test (TST) or blood tests.
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Typhoid fever, also known simply as typhoid, is a bacterial infection due to Salmonella typhi that causes symptoms. Symptoms may vary from mild to severe and usually begin six to thirty days after exposure. Often there is a gradual onset of a high fever over several days. Weakness, abdominal pain, constipation, and headaches also commonly occur. Diarrhea is uncommon and vomiting is not usually severe. Some people develop a skin rash with rose colored spots. In severe cases there may be confusion. Without treatment symptoms may last weeks or months. Other people may carry the bacterium without being affected; however, they are still able to spread the disease to others. Typhoid fever is a type of enteric fever along with paratyphoid fever.

The cause is the bacterium Salmonella typhi, also known as Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi, growing in the intestines and blood. Typhoid is spread by eating or drinking food or water contaminated with the feces of an infected person. Risk factors include poor sanitation and poor hygiene. Those who travel to the developing world are also at risk and only humans can be infected. Diagnosis is by either culturing the bacteria or detecting the bacterium's DNA in the blood, stool, or bone marrow. Culturing the bacterium can be difficult. Bone marrow testing is the most accurate. Symptoms are similar to that of many other infectious diseases. Typhus is a different disease.
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Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a long-term condition that results in inflammation and ulcers of the colon and rectum. The primary symptom of active disease is abdominal pain and diarrhea mixed with blood. Weight loss, fever, and anemia may also occur. Often symptoms come on slowly and can range from mild to severe. Symptoms typically occur intermittently with periods of no symptoms between flares. Complications may include megacolon, inflammation of the eye, joints, or liver, and colon cancer.

The cause of UC is unknown. Theories involve immune system dysfunction, genetics, changes in the normal gut bacteria, and environmental factors. Rates tend to be higher in the developed world with some proposing this to be the result of less exposure to intestinal infections, or a Western diet and lifestyle. The removal of the appendix at an early age may be protective. Diagnosis is typically by colonoscopy with tissue biopsies. It is a kind of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) along with Crohn's disease and microscopic colitis.
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Indigestion, also known as dyspepsia, is a condition of impaired digestion. Symptoms may include upper abdominal fullness, heartburn, nausea, belching, or upper abdominal pain. People may also experience feeling full earlier than expected when eating. Dyspepsia is a common problem and is frequently caused by gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) or gastritis. In a small minority of cases it may be the first symptom of peptic ulcer disease (an ulcer of the stomach or duodenum) and, occasionally, cancer. Hence, unexplained newly onset dyspepsia in people over 55 or the presence of other alarming symptoms may require further investigations.

Functional indigestion (previously called nonulcer dyspepsia) is indigestion "without evidence of an organic disease that is likely to explain the symptoms". Functional indigestion is estimated to affect about 15% of the general population in western countries.
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Urinary incontinence (UI), also known as involuntary urination, is any leakage of urine. It is a common and distressing problem, which may have a large impact on quality of life. It is twice as common in women as in men. Pregnancy, childbirth, and menopause are major risk factors. It has been identified as an important issue in geriatric health care. Urinary incontinence is often a result of an underlying medical condition but is under-reported to medical practitioners. Enuresis is often used to refer to urinary incontinence primarily in children, such as nocturnal enuresis (bed wetting).

There are four main types of incontinence:

Urge incontinence due to an overactive bladder
Stress incontinence due to poor closure of the bladder
Overflow incontinence due to either poor bladder contraction or blockage of the urethra
Functional incontinence due to medications or health problems making it difficult to reach the bathroom
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A urinary tract infection (UTI) is an infection that affects part of the urinary tract. When it affects the lower urinary tract it is known as a bladder infection (cystitis) and when it affects the upper urinary tract it is known as kidney infection (pyelonephritis). Symptoms from a lower urinary tract include pain with urination, frequent urination, and feeling the need to urinate despite having an empty bladder. Symptoms of a kidney infection include fever and flank pain usually in addition to the symptoms of a lower UTI. Rarely the urine may appear bloody. In the very old and the very young, symptoms may be vague or non-specific.

The most common cause of infection is Escherichia coli, though other bacteria or fungi may rarely be the cause. Risk factors include female anatomy, sexual intercourse, diabetes, obesity, and family history. Although sexual intercourse is a risk factor, UTIs are not classified as sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Kidney infection, if it occurs, usually follows a bladder infection but may also result from a blood-borne infection. Diagnosis in young healthy women can be based on symptoms alone. In those with vague symptoms, diagnosis can be difficult because bacteria may be present without there being an infection. In complicated cases or if treatment fails, a urine culture may be useful.
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Itching or irritation anywhere on the body can cause discomfort. But when it occurs in an area as sensitive as the vagina and vulva (the labia, clitoris, and vaginal opening), it can be especially uncomfortable. Most genital itching and irritation isn't a major concern. But because they can be symptoms of an infection, it's always a good idea to call your health care provider.

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Vertigo is a medical condition where a person feels as if they or the objects around them are moving when they are not. Often it feels like a spinning or swaying movement. This may be associated with nausea, vomiting, sweating, or difficulties walking. It is typically worsened when the head is moved. Vertigo is the most common type of dizziness.

The most common diseases that result in vertigo are benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV), Ménière's disease, and labyrinthitis. Less common causes include stroke, brain tumors, brain injury, multiple sclerosis, migraines, trauma, and uneven pressures between the middle ears. Physiologic vertigo may occur following being exposed to motion for a prolonged period such as when on a ship or simply following spinning with the eyes closed. Other causes may include toxin exposures such as to carbon monoxide, alcohol, or aspirin. Vertigo is a problem in a part of the vestibular system. Other causes of dizziness include presyncope, disequilibrium, and non-specific dizziness.

Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo is more likely in someone who gets repeated episodes of vertigo with movement and is otherwise normal between these episodes. The episodes of vertigo should last less than one minute. The Dix-Hallpike test typically produces a period of rapid eye movements known as nystagmus in this condition. In Ménière's disease there is often ringing in the ears, hearing loss, and the attacks of vertigo last more than twenty minutes. In labyrinthitis the onset of vertigo is sudden and the nystagmus occurs without movement. In this condition vertigo can last for days. More severe causes should also be considered. This is especially true if other problems such as weakness, headache, double vision, or numbness occur.

Dizziness affects approximately 20–40% of people at some point in time, while about 7.5–10% have vertigo. About 5% have vertigo in a given year. It becomes more common with age and affects women two to three times more often than men. Vertigo accounts for about 2–3% of emergency department visits in the developed world.
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Vomiting, also known as emesis and throwing up, among other terms, is the involuntary, forceful expulsion of the contents of one's stomach through the mouth and sometimes the nose.

Vomiting can be caused by a wide variety of conditions; it may present as a specific response to ailments like gastritis or poisoning, or as a non-specific sequela of disorders ranging from brain tumors and elevated intracranial pressure to overexposure to ionizing radiation. The feeling that one is about to vomit is called nausea, which often precedes, but does not always lead to, vomiting. Antiemetics are sometimes necessary to suppress nausea and vomiting. In severe cases, where dehydration develops, intravenous fluid may be required. Self induced vomiting can be a component of an eating disorder, such as Bulimia Nervosa, and is itself now an eating disorder on its own, purging disorder.

Vomiting is different from regurgitation, although the two terms are often used interchangeably. Regurgitation is the return of undigested food back up the esophagus to the mouth, without the force and displeasure associated with vomiting. The causes of vomiting and regurgitation are generally different.
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Morning sickness, also called nausea and vomiting of pregnancy (NVP), is a symptom of pregnancy that involves nausea or vomiting. Despite the name, nausea or vomiting can occur at any time during the day. Typically these symptoms occur between the 4th and 16th week of pregnancy. About 10% of women still have symptoms after the 20th week of pregnancy. A severe form of the condition is known as hyperemesis gravidarum and results in weight loss.

The cause of morning sickness is unknown but may be related to changing levels of the hormone human chorionic gonadotrophin. Some have proposed that it may be useful from an evolutionary point of view. Diagnosis should only occur after other possible causes have been ruled out. Abdominal pain, fever, or headaches are typically not present in morning sickness.

Taking prenatal vitamins before pregnancy may decrease the risk. Specific treatment other than a bland diet may not be required for mild cases. If treatment is used the combination of doxylamine and pyridoxine is recommended initially. There is limited evidence that ginger may be useful. For severe cases that have not improved with other measures methylprednisolone may be tried. Tube feeding may be required in women who are losing weight.

Morning sickness affects about 70-80% of all pregnant women to some extent. About 60% of women have vomiting. Hyperemesis gravidarum occurs in about 1.6% of pregnancies. Morning sickness can negatively affect quality of life, result in decreased ability to work while pregnant, and result in health care expenses. Generally mild to moderate cases have no effect on the baby. Most severe cases also have normal outcomes. Some women choose to have an abortion due to the severity of symptoms. Complications such as Wernicke encephalopathy or esophageal rupture may occur but are very rare.
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Warts are typically small, rough, and hard growths that are similar in color to the rest of the skin. They typically do not result in symptoms except when on the bottom of the feet where they may be painful. While they usually occur on the hands and feet they can also affect other locations. One or many warts may appear. They are not cancerous.

Warts are caused by infection with a type of human papillomavirus (HPV). Factors that increase the risk include use of public showers, working with meat, eczema, and a low immune system. The virus is believed to enter the body through skin that has been damaged slightly. A number of types exist including: common warts, plantar warts, filiform warts, and genital warts. Genital warts are often sexually transmitted.

Without treatment, most types of warts resolve in months to years. A number of treatments may speed resolution including salicylic acid applied to the skin and cryotherapy. In those who are otherwise healthy they do not typically result in significant problems. Treatment of genital warts differ from that of other types.

Warts are very common, with most people being infected at some point in time. The estimated current rate of non-genital warts among the general population is 1–13%. They are more common among young people. Estimated rates of genital warts in sexually active women is 12%. Warts have been described at least as far back as 400 BC by Hippocrates.
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Water in the ear is a very common occurrence and can happen to anyone. While swimming or taking a bath or shower, water can get inside the ears. Normally, the wax present in the ear canal prevents fluid from going deep inside the ear. But at times, fluid can get trapped within the ear.This causes a tickling sensation in the ear that can create much discomfort. It may also be accompanied by pain and reduced hearing ability.If left untreated, fluid in the ear can cause hearing loss, cyst formation, eardrum inflammation and other complications. This is why it is important to get rid of fluid in the ears as soon as possible.


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The term water retention (also known as fluid retention) or hydrops, hydropsy, edema, signifies an abnormal accumulation of clear, watery fluid in the tissues or cavities of the body.

Water is found both inside and outside the body’s cells. It forms part of the blood, helping to carry the blood cells around the body and keeping oxygen and important nutrients in solution so that they can be taken up by tissues such as glands, bone and muscle. Even the organs and muscles are mostly water.

The body uses a complex system of hormones and hormone-like substances called prostaglandins to keep its volume of fluid at a constant level. If one were to intake an excessive amount of fluid in one day, the amount of fluid would not be affected in the long term. This is because the kidneys quickly excrete the excess in the form of urine. Likewise, if one did not get enough to drink, the body would hold on to its fluids and urinate less than usual. Imbalances in this system can lead to water retention, which can range from mild and unnoticeable to symptomatic with swelling.
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Weight gain is an increase in body weight. This can involve an increase in muscle mass, fat deposits, excess fluids such as water or other factors. Weight gain can be a symptom of a serious medical condition.
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Vitiligo is a long term skin condition characterized by patches of the skin losing their pigment. The patches of skin affected become white and usually have sharp margins. The hair from the skin may also become white. Inside the mouth and nose may also be involved. Typically both sides of the body are affected. Often the patches begin on areas of skin that are exposed to the sun. It is more noticeable in people with dark skin. Vitiligo may result in psychological stress and those affected may be stigmatized.

The cause is typically unknown. It is believed to be due to genetic susceptibility that is triggered by an environmental factor such that an autoimmune disease occurs. This results in the destruction of skin pigment cells. Risk factors include a family history of the condition or other autoimmune diseases, such as hyperthyroidism, alopecia areata, and pernicious anemia. It is not contagious. Vitiligo is classified into two main types: segmental and non-segmental. Most cases are non-segmental, meaning they affect both sides; and in these cases, the affected area of the skin typically expands with time. About 10% of cases are segmental, meaning they mostly involve one side of the body; and in these cases, the affected area of the skin typically does not expand with time. Diagnosis can be confirmed by tissue biopsy.

There is no known cure for vitiligo. For those with light skin, sunscreen and makeup are all that is typically recommended. Other treatment options may include steroid creams or phototherapy to darken the light patches. Alternatively, efforts to lighten the unaffected skin, such as with hydroquinone, may be tried. A number of surgical options are available for those who do not improve with other measures. A combination of treatments generally has better outcomes. Counselling to provide emotional support may be useful.

Globally about 1% of people are affected by vitiligo. Some populations have rates as high as 2–3%. Males and females are equally affected. About half show the disorder before age 20 and most develop it before age 40. Vitiligo has been described since ancient history.
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Tongue diseases can be congenital or acquired, and are multiple in number. Considered according to a surgical sieve, some example conditions which can involve the tongue are discussed below. Glossitis is a general term for tongue inflammation, which can have various etiologies, e.g. infection.
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Whitehead, a blocked sweat/sebaceous duct of the skin known medically as a closed comedo
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A wisdom tooth or third molar is one of the three molars per quadrant of the human dentition. It is the most posterior of the three. Wisdom teeth generally erupt between the ages of 17 and 25. Most adults have four wisdom teeth, one in each of the four quadrants, but it is possible to have fewer or more, in which case the extras are called supernumerary teeth. Wisdom teeth commonly affect other teeth as they develop, becoming impacted. They are often extracted when or even before this occurs.
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Women's health refers to the health of women, which differs from that of men in many unique ways. Women's health is an example of population health, where health is defined by the World Health Organization as "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity". Often treated as simply women's reproductive health, many groups argue for a broader definition pertaining to the overall health of women, better expressed as "The health of women". These differences are further exacerbated in developing countries where women, whose health includes both their risks and experiences, are further disadvantaged.

Although women in industrialised countries have narrowed the gender gap in life expectancy and now live longer than men, in many areas of health they experience earlier and more severe disease with poorer outcomes. Gender remains an important social determinant of health, since women's health is influenced not just by their biology but also by conditions such as poverty, employment, and family responsibilities. Women have long been disadvantaged in many respects such as social and economic power which restricts their access to the necessities of life including health care, and the greater the level of disadvantage, such as in developing countries, the greater adverse impact on health.

Women's reproductive and sexual health has a distinct difference compared to men's health. Even in developed countries pregnancy and childbirth are associated with substantial risks to women with maternal mortality accounting for more than a quarter of a million deaths per year, with large gaps between the developing and developed countries. Comorbidity from other non reproductive disease such as cardiovascular disease contribute to both the mortality and morbidity of pregnancy, including preeclampsia. Sexually transmitted infections have serious consequences for women and infants, with mother-to-child transmission leading to outcomes such as stillbirths and neonatal deaths, and pelvic inflammatory disease leading to infertility. In addition infertility from many other causes, birth control, unplanned pregnancy, unconsensual sexual activity and the struggle for access to abortion create other burdens for women.

While the rates of the leading causes of death, cardiovascular disease, cancer and lung disease, are similar in women and men, women have different experiences. Lung cancer has overtaken all other types of cancer as the leading cause of cancer death in women, followed by breast cancer, colorectal, ovarian, uterine and cervical cancers. While smoking is the major cause of lung cancer, amongst nonsmoking women the risk of developing cancer is three times greater than amongst nonsmoking men. Despite this, breast cancer remains the commonest cancer in women in developed countries, and is one of the more important chronic diseases of women, while cervical cancer remains one of the commonest cancers in developing countries, associated with human papilloma virus (HPV), an important sexually transmitted disease. HPV vaccine together with screening offers the promise of controlling these diseases. Other important health issues for women include cardiovascular disease, depression, dementia, osteoporosis and anemia. A major impediment to advancing women's health has been their underrepresentation in research studies, an inequity being addressed in the United States and other western nations by the establishment of centers of excellence in women's health research and large scale clinical trials such as the Women's Health Initiative
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A vaginal yeast infection is an infection caused by yeast (a type of fungus). Vaginal yeast infection is sometimes referred to as yeast vaginitis, Candidal vaginitis, or Candidal vulvovaginitis. The scientific name for the yeast that causes vaginitis is Candida. Over 90% of vaginal yeast infections are caused by the species known as Candida albicans. Other Candida species make up the remainder of yeast infections.

Candida species can be present in healthy women in the vagina without causing any symptoms. In fact, it is estimated that 20% to 50% of women have Candida already present in the vagina. For an infection to occur, the normal balance of yeast and bacteria is disturbed, allowing overgrowth of the yeast. While yeast can be spread by sexual contact, vaginal yeast infection is not considered to be a sexually-transmitted disease because it can also occur in women who are not sexually active, due to the fact that yeast can be present in the vagina of healthy women.


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Blisters is very painful to experience blister over the tongue as this does not allow us to have our food in a comfortable way. Even it becomes very hard to get the taste of every food we intake as the pain becomes intolerable. The burning sensation can develop if you have unmindfully eaten up a hot food or a hot drink that imperatively have affected the outer layer of the tongue.

The first thing which you should do is spilt away the food or drink which you have taken inside your mouth unmindfully. Since it is burning of a portion of your body, it is important to go ahead with some simple and common first aid before going for a deeper treatment.

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Tooth discoloration (also termed tooth staining) is abnormal tooth color, hue or translucency.External discoloration is accumulation of stains on the tooth surface. Internal discoloration is due to absorption of pigment particles into tooth structure. Sometimes there are several different co-existent factors responsible for discoloration.
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Acupuncture is a form of alternative medicine in which thin needles are inserted into the body. It is a key component of traditional Chinese medicine. TCM theory and practice are not based upon scientific knowledge, and acupuncture is a pseudoscience. There is a diverse range of acupuncture theories based on different philosophies, and techniques vary depending on the country. The method used in TCM is likely the most widespread in the United States. It is most often used for pain relief, though it is also used for a wide range of other conditions. Acupuncture is generally used only in combination with other forms of treatment.

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A chiropractor is a health care professional focused on the diagnosis and treatment of neuromuscular disorders, with an emphasis on treatment through manual adjustment and/or manipulation of the spine.

Most chiropractors seek to reduce pain and improve the functionality of patients as well as to educate them on how they can account for their own health via exercise, ergonomics and other therapies to treat back pain.

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Does the word "diet" immediately make you think of an unpleasant weight-loss regimen?If it did, you are probably not alone. For example, consider the use of the term "diet" in marketing food products—it usually describes foods low in calories, such as diet soda.But there is another meaning of this word. Diet can also refer to the food and drink a person consumes daily and the mental and physical circumstances connected to eating. Nutrition involves more than simply eating a “good” diet—it is about nourishment on every level. It involves relationships with family, friends, nature (the environment), our bodies, our community, and the world.



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One of the most often heard homeopathic mantras is “Homeopathy treats the person, not the disease”.

But what does this really mean?

From a medical standpoint, a disease diagnosis is key, because drugs are prescribed to target a particular disease condition – for example, Prilosec for heartburn, Fosamax for osteoporosis, and Ritalin for ADHD.

From a homeopathic standpoint, the disease name is not important. Homeopathy triggers the body’s own healing mechanism and homeopathic remedies are prescribed based on the overall symptom picture.

In an acute case – such as flu, gastroenteritis, or an injury – this picture would include such variables as:

–   Energy level – are you more or less tired than usual? Is it worse at any particular time of day?

–   Changes in emotional state – are you more weepy, restless, or angry?

–   Pace of the illness – did it come on quickly, did it progress rapidly or slowly?

– Any unusual symptoms – e.g. a fever with no thirst, hunger with no desire to eat  (These are the most important symptoms for a homeopath, as they help to individualize the case and guide to the best remedy)

An example of this is a case of the flu.

A medical doctor will elicit the common symptoms, such as aching limbs, chills, cough, sore throat, runny nose and fatigue, and the prescription will be the same for every patient.

a homeopath will take these symptoms too. but will also want to know how your flu is different from everyone else’s.

So you could have a situation where two members of the same family have contracted the same virus, but one may have felt it coming on for several days, with chilliness, irritability and fatigue, while the other experienced a rapid onset of symptoms with a high temperature, perspiration, restlessness and anxiety.  Although the medical diagnosis would be the same, the manifestation of the virus is quite different, and each person would require a different homeopathic remedy.

This is the beauty of homeopathy – that it is unique and personalized for each individual and for each case of illness – but the down side is that homeopathy is not one-size-fits-all, which makes it more complex to practice and not compatible with the double blind trials so popular in the validation of  traditional medicine.


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The term “massage therapy” includes many techniques, and the type of massage given usually depends on your needs and physical condition.Massage therapy dates back thousands of years. References to massage appear in ancient writings from China, Japan, India, and EgyptIn general, massage therapists work on muscle and other soft tissue to help you feel better.In Swedish massage, the therapist uses long strokes, kneading, deep circular movements, vibration, and tapping.Sports massage combines techniques of Swedish massage and deep tissue massage to release chronic muscle tension. It’s adapted to the needs of athletes.Myofascial trigger point therapy focuses on trigger points—areas that are painful when pressed and are associated with pain elsewhere in the body.Massage therapy is sometimes done using essential oils as a form of aromatherapy.

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Each of us is comprised of a physical body and an energetic body. We are physical which is how we live our lives in the physical world and the fuel for this is our energy! For thousands of years man has been aware of the energy centers in the body which have come to be known in our modernity as Chakras. One does not need to have a set of beliefs or a dogma found in religions or other forms of spiritual practices in order to work with the Chakra System. We are physical and we are energy. What has proven to be useful, helpful, and healing is balancing, clearing and elevating the chakra system through meditation, chakra balancing work, breath work, and yoga. All of these modalities are worthy.


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Naturopathic medicine is a distinct primary health care profession, emphasizing prevention, treatment, and optimal

health through the use of therapeutic methods and substances that encourage individuals’ inherent self-healing

process.  The practice of naturopathic medicine includes modern and traditional, scientific, and empirical methods.

 

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Acidity or Gastro esophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a chronic symptom of mucosal damage that is caused due to entry of acid from stomach into the esophagus. The esophagus is a long tube of muscle that runs from mouth to the stomach. Normally once the food is chewed, it goes from mouth to the esophagus and then into the stomach, where it is mixed with the acidic gastric juice for digestion. The esophagus and the stomach are separated by a sphincter (lower esophageal sphincter), which is a band of muscular fibers that close the valve in order to prevent the food or gastric acids from going back to the esophagus.
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Stomach bloating is so common these days it’s been called an “epidemic.” With most people’s poor diets, high levels of stress, need for daily medications and exposure to various pollutants, it’s no wonder they’re suffering some sort of bloating more days than not.

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Health is the level of functional and metabolic efficiency of a living organism. In humans it is the ability of individuals or communities to adapt and self-manage when facing physical, mental, psychological and social changes with environment. The World Health Organization (WHO) defined health in its broader sense in its 1948 constitution as "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity." This definition has been subject to controversy, in particular as lacking operational value, the ambiguity in developing cohesive health strategies, and because of the problem created by use of the word "complete". Other definitions have been proposed, among which a recent definition that correlates health and personal satisfaction. Classification systems such as the WHO Family of International Classifications, including the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD), are commonly used to define and measure the components of health.
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An autoimmune disease is a condition arising from an abnormal immune response to a normal body part. There are at least 80 types of autoimmune diseases. Nearly any body part can be involved. Common symptoms include low grade fever and feeling tired. Often symptoms come and go.

The cause is generally unknown. Some autoimmune diseases such as lupus run in families, and certain cases may be triggered by infections or other environmental factors. Some common diseases that are generally considered autoimmune include celiac disease, diabetes mellitus type 1, Graves' disease, inflammatory bowel disease, multiple sclerosis, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, and systemic lupus erythematosus. The diagnosis can be difficult to determine.

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The Food and Nutrition Service administers several programs that provide healthy food to children including the National School Lunch Program, School Breakfast Program, Child and Adult Care Food Program, Summer Food Service Program, Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Program, and Special Milk Program.

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Gastroesophageal reflux disease, commonly referred to as GERD or acid reflux, is a condition in which the liquid content of the stomach regurgitates (backs up or refluxes) into the esophagus. The liquid can inflame and damage the lining (esophagitis) although visible signs of inflammation occur in a minority of patients. The regurgitated liquid usually contains acid and pepsin that are produced by the stomach. (Pepsin is an enzyme that begins the digestion of proteins in the stomach.) The refluxed liquid also may contain bile that has backed-up into the stomach from the duodenum. The first part of the small intestine attached to the stomach. Acid is believed to be the most injurious component of the refluxed liquid. Pepsin and bile also may injure the esophagus, but their role in the production of esophageal inflammation and damage is not as clear as the role of acid.


GERD is a chronic condition. Once it begins, it usually is life-long. If there is injury to the lining of the esophagus (esophagitis), this also is a chronic condition. Moreover, after the esophagus has healed with treatment and treatment is stopped, the injury will return in most patients within a few months. Once treatment for GERD is begun it will need to be continued indefinitely although. However, some patients with intermittent symptoms and no esophagitis can be treated only during symptomatic periods.

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Gestational diabetes -- diabetes that develops during pregnancy -- is a relatively common complication of pregnancy, affecting about 6% of all pregnant women.

You may have a greater risk of developing gestational diabetes if you:

Are obese when you become pregnant
Have high blood pressure or other medical complications
Have given birth to a large (greater than 9 pounds) baby before
Have given birth to a baby that was stillborn or suffering from certain birth defects
Have had gestational diabetes in previous pregnancies
Have a family history of diabetes
Come from certain ethnic backgrounds, including African, Hispanic, Asian, Native American, or Pacific Islander
Are older than 30

 

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Gluten is a protein found primarily in wheat, barley and rye. If a person has a gluten intolerance, this protein can cause digestive problems such as gassiness, abdominal pain or diarrhea. Gluten intolerance is sometimes confused with Celiac disease, or thought of as a food allergy.

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A blood blister is a type of blister that forms when subdermal tissues and blood vessels are damaged without piercing the skin. It consists of a pool of lymph, blood and other body fluids trapped beneath the skin. If punctured, it suppurates a dark fluid. Sometimes the fluids are cut off from the rest of the body and dry up, leaving behind dead cell material inside the blister with a texture like putty. Some blood blisters can be extremely painful due to bruising where the blister occurred.

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Malnutrition refers to deficiencies, excesses or imbalances in a person’s intake of energy and/or nutrients. The term malnutrition covers 2 broad groups of conditions. One is ‘undernutrition’—which includes stunting (low height for age), wasting (low weight for height), underweight (low weight for age) and micronutrient deficiencies or insufficiencies (a lack of important vitamins and minerals). The other is overweight, obesity and diet-related noncommunicable diseases (such as heart disease, stroke, diabetes and cancer)

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Metabolic syndrome is a cluster of metabolic risk factors that come together in a single individual. These metabolic factors include insulin resistance, hypertension (high blood pressure), cholesterol abnormalities, and an increased risk for blood clotting. Affected individuals are most often overweight or obese. An association between certain metabolic disorders and cardiovascular disease has been known since the 1940s.

Metabolic syndrome is considered to be a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes. Insulin resistance refers to the diminished ability of cells to respond to the action of insulin in promoting the transport of the sugar glucose, from blood into muscles and other tissues. Type 2 diabetes is caused by insulin resistance.Metabolic syndrome is also known as syndrome X, insulin resistance syndrome, or dysmetabolic syndrome.


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Prediabetes is the precursor stage before diabetes mellitus in which not all of the symptoms required to diagnose diabetes are present, but blood sugar is abnormally high. This stage is often referred to as the "grey area." It is not a disease; the American Diabetes Association says, "Prediabetes should not be viewed as a clinical entity in its own right but rather as an increased risk for diabetes and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Prediabetes is associated with obesity (especially abdominal or visceral obesity), dyslipidemia with high triglycerides and/or low HDL cholesterol, and hypertension." It is thus a metabolic diathesis or syndrome, and it usually involves no symptoms and only high blood sugar as the sole sign.

Impaired fasting blood sugar and impaired glucose tolerance are two forms of prediabetes that are similar in clinical definition (glucose levels too high for their context) but are physiologically distinct. Insulin resistance, the insulin resistance syndrome (metabolic syndrome or syndrome X), and prediabetes are closely related to one another and have overlapping aspects.
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Nutrition and pregnancy refers to the nutrient intake, and dietary planning that is undertaken before, during and after pregnancy. Nutrition of the fetus begins at conception. For this reason, the nutrition of the mother is important from before conception (probably several months before) as well as throughout pregnancy and breast feeding. An ever-increasing number of studies have shown that the nutrition of the mother will have an effect on the child, up to and including the risk for cancer, cardiovascular disease, hypertension and diabetes throughout life.

An inadequate or excessive amount of some nutrients may cause malformations or medical problems in the fetus, and neurological disorders and handicaps are a risk that is run by mothers who are malnourished. 23.8% of babies worldwide are estimated to be born with lower than optimal weights at birth due to lack of proper nutrition. Personal habits such as smoking, alcohol, caffeine, using certain medications and street drugs can negatively and irreversibly affect the development of the baby, which happens in the early stages of pregnancy.

Caffeine is sometimes assumed to cause harm to the unborn baby but there is not enough evidence so say if this is true. A recent review showed that more research is needed to show whether caffeine intake effects birth weight, preterm births, gestational diabetes and other outcomes.
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Healthy eating plays a very important role in a healthy pregnancy. You need to eat foods from a variety of sources to make sure you get all the vitamins, minerals and nutrients you and your developing baby need. Eating well will also help you feel better, give you more energy and help you gain a healthy amount of weight. It will also contribute to your baby's healthy growth and development.


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A vitamin deficiency can cause a disease or syndrome known as an avitaminosis or hypovitaminosis. This usually refers to a long-term deficiency of a vitamin. When caused by inadequate nutrition it can be classed as a primary deficiency, and when due to an underlying disorder such as malabsorption it can be classed as a secondary deficiency. An underlying disorder may be metabolic as in a defect converting tryptophan to niacin. It can also be the result of lifestyle choices including smoking and alcohol consumption.

Examples are vitamin A deficiency, folate deficiency, (scurvy), vitamin D deficiency, vitamin E deficiency, and vitamin K deficiency. In the medical literature, any of these may also be called by names on the pattern of hypovitaminosis or avitaminosis + [letter of vitamin], for example, hypovitaminosis A, hypovitaminosis C, hypovitaminosis D.
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Have you ever felt your fingers and toes going numb? Most of us face this problem once in a while, but if this numbness becomes an everyday thing for you, you need help. Blood serves several important functions in the body. It provides oxygen and nutrients to every cell and organ in the body. It balances body temperature, providing warmth to the fingers, nose and toes.

Poor blood circulation is much more unpleasant than it sounds. It occurs when the blood flow becomes restricted to certain parts of the body like heart, legs, hands, toes, feet and fingers. In mild situations, poor blood circulation causes only discomfort. But if not handled in time, it can lead to several other serious health conditions. The health problems caused due to poor blood circulation include varicose veins, kidney issue and other blood restriction difficulties.

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A relatively new term, “adrenal fatigue” was proposed as a new condition in 1998 by Dr. James L. Wilson, a naturopath and chiropractor. His assumption was that an overstimulation of the adrenal glands (or “adrenals”) by chronic stress over time could lead to an inconsistent level of cortisol (the stress hormone) in the bloodstream, sometimes far more than normal and at other times, far too low. In addition to this overload or improper cortisol level, people with adrenal fatigue often don’t have enough DHEA, the “parent hormone” responsible for the creation of many necessary hormones in the body.

Unlike other endocrine disorders that are caused by physical damage to parts of the adrenal glands, hypoadrenia is seen by many in the natural health world as a “middle ground” syndrome with simple and easy-to-implement solutions. Currently, no official diagnosis exists for adrenal fatigue and people are either considered to have normal endocrine function or total endocrine failure, like that seen in Cushing’s syndrome or adrenal insufficiency/Addison’s disease. 

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Oncology rehabilitation for breast cancer. Breast cancer and its treatment may affect your physical functioning and energy. ... Exercise may also help you manage treatment-related fatigue, especially during radiation treatments.

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Treatment. Although there is no cure for osteoporosis, there are steps you cantake to prevent, slow or stop its progress. In some cases, you may even be able to improve bone density and reverse the disorder to some degree. Getting enough calcium and vitamin D are essential to bone health.

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Skin pigmentation disorders are conditions that cause the skin to appear lighter or darker than normal, or blotchy and discolored.


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Aromatherapy uses plant materials and aromatic plant oils, including essential oils, and other aroma compounds for improving psychological or physical well-being. It can be offered as a complementary therapy or, more controversially, as a form of alternative medicine. Complementary therapy can be offered alongside standard treatment, with alternative medicine offered instead of conventional, evidence-based treatments.

Aromatherapists, who specialize in the practice of aromatherapy, utilize blends of therapeutic essential oils that can be issued through topical application, massage, inhalation or water immersion to stimulate a desired response.

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Preventive dentistry is the modern way of helping you keep a healthy mouth. It helps you to keep your teeth, and means you need to have less dental treatment. The two main causes of tooth loss are decay and gum disease. The better you prevent or deal with these two problems, the more chance you will have of keeping your teeth for life.

When the dental team and patient work together, this can help to prevent the need for treatment - especially fillings and extractions. Your dental team may recommend a course of treatment to get your mouth into good condition, and then work out a ‘maintenance plan' to help you keep it that way.

The key to keeping a bright, healthy smile throughout adulthood is to practice proper oral hygiene. Adults can get cavities, as well as gum disease that can lead to serious problems. Throughout your adult life, it's important to continue to:

Brush twice a day with fluoride toothpaste to remove dental plaque – the sticky film on your teeth that's the main cause of tooth decay and inflammation of the gums, called gingivitis.

Floss daily to remove plaque from between your teeth and under your gum line, before it can harden into tartar. Once tartar has formed, it can only be removed by a dental hygienist during a professional cleaning.

Limit sugary or starchy foods, especially sticky snacks. The more often you snack between meals, the more chances you give bacteria to create the acids that attack your tooth enamel.Visit your dentist regularly for professional cleanings and checkups.


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HCA Urgent Care teams will provide prompt examination, investigation and treatment for most respiratory or chest complaints.

In our urgent care facilities, we can perform blood tests, X-rays and specialist CT scans within the hospital and have fast access to a network of senior private Consultants who specialise in Respiratory conditions or Cardiology problems to who we can refer you to be seen either on that day or within a few days depending on the urgency of the problem.

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Hyperthyroidism occurs when your thyroid produces too much of the hormone thyroxine. ... An excess of this hormone can cause your body's metabolism to increase, which leads to a rising body temperature. Graves' disease is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism

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A six-year study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found three behaviors exerted enormous impact on mortality: not currently smoking, consuming a healthier diet, and moderately exercising at least 21 minutes a day. People with one of the three behaviors had a 40 percent lower risk of dying within that six-year period. Those with two out of three more than halved their chances of dying, and those with all three reduced their chances of dying in that time by 82 percent.

A similar study measured how much vitamin C subjects had in their bloodstreams, as vitamin C level was considered a good biomarker of plant food intake (and hence was used as a proxy for a healthy diet). The drop in mortality risk among those with healthier habits was equivalent to being 14 years younger. It’s like turning back the clock 14 years just by eating and living healthier.How else might we slow aging?The mitochondrial theory of aging suggests that free radical damage to our cells’ power source (mitochondria) leads to a loss of cellular energy and function over time. According to the theory, the resulting cellular damage is what essentially causes aging. Aging and disease have been thought of as the oxidation of the body; oxidant stress is thought to be why we all get wrinkles, why we lose some of our memory, why our organ systems break down as we get older.Basically, the theory goes, we’re rusting.

Eating antioxidant-rich foods may slow down this oxidant process. On average, plant foods may contain 64 times more antioxidants than animal foods. Including a variety of fruits, vegetables, herbs, and spices each meal continuously floods our body with antioxidants to help ward off stroke and other age-related diseases.Consuming fruits and veggies, and not smoking, has also been associated with longer protective telomeres, the caps on the tips of our chromosomes that keep DNA from unraveling. (Think of the plastic tips on the ends of our shoelaces.) Each time our cells divide, a bit of that cap is lost. Telomeres can start shortening as soon as we’re born, and when they’re gone, we’re gone. The food we eat may impact how fast we lose our telomeres: Consumption of refined grains, soda, meat, and dairy has been linked to shortened telomeres, while fruit, vegetable, and other antioxidant-rich plant food intake has been associated with longer ones.


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Use a humidifier or vaporizer.

Take long showers or breathe in steam from a pot of warm (but not too hot) water.

Drink lots of fluids. 

Use a nasal saline spray. 

Try a Neti pot, nasal irrigator, or bulb syringe.

Sit a warm, wet towel on your face.

Prop yourself up.

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UTIs are a key reason we're often told to wipe from front to back after using the bathroom. That's because the urethra -- the tube that transports urine from the bladder to the outside of the body -- is located close to the anus. Bacteria from the large intestine, such as E. coli, are in the perfect position to escape the anus and invade the urethra. From there, they can travel up to the bladder, and if the infection isn't treated, continue on to infect the kidneys. Women may be especially prone to UTIs because they have shorter urethras, which allow bacteria quick access to the bladder. Having sex can introduce bacteria into the urinary tract, too.

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Incontinence is a term that describes any accidental or involuntary loss of urine from the bladder (urinary incontinence) or bowel motion, faeces or wind from the bowel (faecal or bowel incontinence).

Incontinence is a widespread condition that ranges in severity from 'just a small leak' to complete loss of bladder or bowel control. In fact, over 4.8 million Australians have bladder or bowel control problems for a variety of reasons. Incontinence can be treated and managed.  In many cases it can also be cured.
Think you might have a problem?

If you experience bladder or bowel problems, but are not sure if you should seek help, try the questionnaire below.
Bladder and bowel questionnaire

    Do you sometimes feel you have not completely emptied your bladder?

    Do you have to rush to use the toilet?

    Are you frequently nervous because you think you might lose control of your bladder or bowel?

    Do you wake up twice or more during the night to go to the toilet?

    Do you sometimes leak before you get to the toilet?

    Do you sometimes leak when you lift something heavy, sneeze, cough or laugh?

    Do you sometimes leak when you exercise or play sport?

    Do you sometimes leak when you change from a seated or lying position to a standing position?

    Do you strain to empty to bowel?

    Do you sometimes soil your underwear?

    Do you plan your daily routine around where the nearest toilet is?

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Cellulite is a term for lumpy, dimpled flesh on the thighs, hips, buttocks and abdomen. It's most common in adolescent and adult women. Although not a serious medical condition, your cellulite might embarrass you.

Many cellulite treatments, including massages or cellulite creams, advertise remarkable results. Most of these treatments don't live up to their claims. Researchers are studying possible medical treatments. In the meantime, you can take steps to slightly improve the appearance of cellulite.

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RINGWORM OVERVIEW


Despite its name, ringworm is not caused by a worm. Ringworm is actually an infection caused by a fungus. It is called ringworm because it can cause a ring-shaped, red, itchy rash on the skin. Ringworm is also called tinea.


There are several different types of ringworm infections, which are named from the body-part that is affected:


●Tinea capitis affects the top of the head, or scalp, and is found mostly in children


●Tinea pedis affects the feet, and is also called "athlete's foot"


●Tinea cruris affects the groin, and is also called "jock itch"


●Tinea faciei affects the face


●Tinea barbae affects the beard area


●Tinea manuum affects the hands


●Tinea corporis is the catch-all term for tinea infections on other body surfaces


You can catch ringworm from someone else who is infected, or even from an infected dog or cat. You can also catch it from objects, such as a shower stall, locker room floor, or pool area that has the fungus. Plus, you can spread ringworm from one body part (such as your feet) to another (such as your groin or hand).


If you have ringworm, your healthcare provider may be able to diagnose it just by looking at your rash. In some cases, s/he will take some scrapings of the rash and look at it under a microscope to check for the fungus. Rarely, a healthcare provider may need to send scrapings from the rash for a fungal culture (a test used to identify fungus by growing it in a microbiology laboratory).


This article will discuss the symptoms and treatment of each type of ringworm infection. More detailed information about tinea is available by subscription  Fungal nail infections are also discussed separately. 


ATHLETE'S FOOT (TINEA PEDIS)

Tinea pedis causes the skin on the feet – often between the toes – to become itchy, red, cracked, tender, and scaly . Sometimes it also causes blisters to form. People who have tinea pedis often also have the infection on the palms of their hands, in their nails, or on their groin.

Unlike tinea capitis, tinea pedis responds to most topical antifungal treatments, many of which are available without a prescription. The cream/gel/lotion/powder is usually applied once or twice daily for four weeks . In severe or long-lasting cases, your healthcare provider may suggest an oral antifungal drug (which is available only by prescription).

To improve comfort and reduce the chances of repeat infection, it is a good idea to use antifungal foot powders, both on the feet and in the shoes, and to wear open shoes when feasible, at least while the feet heal.

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An albumin blood test measures the amount of albumin in your blood. Albumin is a protein made by your liver. Albumin helps keep fluid in your bloodstream so it doesn't leak into other tissues. It is also carries various substances throughout your body, including hormones, vitamins, and enzymes. Low albumin levels can indicate a problem with your liver or kidneys.

Other names: ALB

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An alkaline phosphatase (ALP) test measures the amount of ALP in your blood. ALP is an enzyme found throughout the body, but it is mostly found in the liver, bones, kidneys, and digestive system. When the liver is damaged, ALP may leak into the bloodstream. High levels of ALP can indicate liver disease or bone disorders.

Other names: ALP, ALK, PHOS, Alkp, ALK PHOS

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Allergies are a common and chronic condition that involves the body's immune system. Normally, your immune system works to fight off viruses, bacteria, and other infectious agents. When you have an allergy, your immune system treats a harmless substance, like dust or pollen, as a threat. To fight this perceived threat, your immune system makes antibodies called immunoglobulin E (IgE).

Substances that cause an allergic reaction are called allergens. Besides dust and pollen, other common allergens include animal dander, foods, including nuts and shellfish, and certain medicines, such as penicillin. Allergy symptoms can range from sneezing and a stuffy nose to a life-threatening complication called anaphylactic shock. Allergy blood tests measure the amount of IgE antibodies in the blood. A small amount of IgE antibodies is normal. A larger amount of IgE may mean you have an allergy.

Other names: IgE allergy test, Quantitative IgE, Immunoglobulin E, Total IgE, Specific IgE

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Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) is a protein produced in the liver of a developing fetus. During a baby's development, some AFP passes through the placenta and into the mother's blood. An AFP test measures the level of AFP in pregnant women during the second trimester of pregnancy. Too much or too little AFP in a mother's blood may be sign of a birth defect or other condition. These include:

  • neural tube defect, a serious condition that causes abnormal development of a developing baby's brain and/or spine
  • Down syndrome, a genetic disorder that causes intellectual disabilities and developmental delays
  • Twins or multiple births, because more than one baby is producing AFP
  • Miscalculation of due date, because AFP levels change during pregnancy

Other names: AFP Maternal; Maternal Serum AFP; msAFP screen

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ALT, which stands for alanine transaminase, is an enzyme found mostly in the liver. When liver cells are damaged, they release ALT into the bloodstream. An ALT test measures the amount of ALT in the blood. High levels of ALT in the blood can indicate a liver problem, even before you have signs of liver disease, such as jaundice, a condition that causes your skin and eyes to turn yellow. An ALT blood test may be helpful in early detection of liver disease.

Other names: Alanine Transaminase (ALT), SGPT, Serum Glutamic-Pyruvic Transaminase, GPT

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An amylase test measures the amount of amylase in your blood or urine. Amylase is an enzyme, or special protein, that helps you digest food. Most of your amylase is made in the pancreas and salivary glands. A small amount of amylase in your blood and urine is normal. A larger or smaller amount may mean that you have a disorder of the pancreas, an infection, alcoholism, or another medical condition.

Other names: Amy test, serum amylase, urine amylase

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An anion gap blood test is a way to check the levels of acid in your blood. The test is based on the results of another blood test called an electrolyte panel. Electrolytes are electrically charged mineralsthat help control the balance of chemicals in your body called acids and bases. Some of these minerals have a positive electric charge. Others have a negative electric charge. The anion gap is a measurement of the difference-or gap-between the negatively charged and positively charged electrolytes. If the anion gap is either too high or too low, it may be a sign of a disorder in your lungs, kidneys, or other organ systems.

Other names: Serum anion gap

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The aspartate aminotransferase (AST) blood test is a common diagnostic tool used to evaluate the health of the liver and other organs. It measures the level of AST, an enzyme found in various tissues, including the liver, heart, and skeletal muscle, in the bloodstream. High levels of AST can indicate liver damage, such as hepatitis or cirrhosis, or damage to other organs, such as the heart. The test is typically performed as part of a routine blood panel or as a follow-up to other abnormal liver function tests.
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Bacteria are a large group of one-celled organisms. They can live on different places in the body. Some types of bacteria are harmless or even beneficial. Others can cause infections and disease. A bacteria culture test can help find harmful bacteria in your body. During a bacteria culture test, a sample will be taken from your blood, urine, skin, or other part of your body. The type of sample depends on the location of the suspected infection. The cells in your sample will be taken to a lab and put in a special environment in a lab to encourage cell growth. Results are often available within a few days. But some types of bacteria grow slowly, and it may take several days or longer.

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A bilirubin blood test measures the levels of bilirubin in your blood. Bilirubin is a yellowish substance made during the body's normal process of breaking down red blood cells. Bilirubin is found in bile, a fluid in your liver that helps you digest food. If your liver is healthy, it will remove most of the bilirubin from your body. If your liver is damaged, bilirubin can leak out of your liver and into your blood. When too much bilirubin gets into the bloodstream, it can cause jaundice, a condition that causes your skin and eyes to turn yellow. Signs of jaundice, along with a bilirubin blood test, can help your health care provider find out if you have liver disease.

Other names: Total serum bilirubin, TSB

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A blood differential test measures the amount of each type of white blood cell (WBC) that you have in your body. White blood cells (leukocytes) are part of your immune system, a network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to protect you from infection. There are five different types of white blood cells:

  • Neutrophils are the most common type of white blood cell. These cells travel to the site of an infection and release substances called enzymes to fight off invading viruses or bacteria.
  • Lymphocytes. There are two main types of lymphocytes: B cells and T cells. B cells fight off invading viruses, bacteria, or toxins. T cells target and destroy the body's own cells that have been infected by viruses or cancer cells.
  • Monocytes remove foreign material, remove dead cells, and boost the body's immune response.
  • Eosinophils fight infection, inflammation, and allergic reactions. They also defend the body against parasites and bacteria.
  • Basophils release enzymes to help control allergic reactions and asthma attacks.

However, your test results may have more than five numbers. For example, the lab may list the results as counts as well as percentages.

Other names for a blood differential test: Complete blood count (CBC) with differential, Differential, White blood cell differential count, Leukocyte differential count.

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A blood glucose test measures the glucose levels in your blood. Glucose is a type of sugar. It is your body's main source of energy. A hormone called insulin helps move glucose from your bloodstream into your cells. Too much or too little glucose in the blood can be a sign of a serious medical condition. High blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia) may be a sign of diabetes, a disorder that can cause heart diseaseblindnesskidney failure and other complications. Low blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia) can also lead to major health problems, including brain damage, if not treated.

Other names: blood sugar, self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG), fasting plasma glucose (FPG), fasting blood sugar (FBS), fasting blood glucose (FBG), glucose challenge test, oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT)

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A boil is often caused by an infection within a hair follicle or oil gland. They're usually caused by staph bacteria, which are naturally present on your skin. Boils can develop anywhere on your body, but are commonly found in places on the body where there is friction.A boil is often caused by an infection within a hair follicle or oil gland. They're usually caused by staph bacteria, which are naturally present on your skin. Boils can develop anywhere on your body, but are commonly found in places on the body where there is friction.

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A BUN, or blood urea nitrogen test, can provide important information about your kidney function. The main job of your kidneys is to remove waste and extra fluid from your body. If you have kidney disease, this waste material can build up in your blood and may lead to serious health problems, including high blood pressureanemia, and heart disease.

The test measures the amount of urea nitrogen in your blood. Urea nitrogen is one of the waste products removed from your blood by your kidneys. Higher than normal BUN levels may be a sign that your kidneys aren't working efficiently.

People with early kidney disease may not have any symptoms. A BUN test can help uncover kidney problems at an early stage when treatment can be more effective.

Other names for a BUN test: Urea nitrogen test, serum BUN

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The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs located on each side of the spine. They’re responsible for filtering out of the blood waste products, excess water, and other impurities. These important organs also control the pH, salt levels, and potassium levels in the body. The kidneys even produce hormones that manage red blood cell production and regulate blood pressure.

A blood urea nitrogen (BUN) test is used to determine how well your kidneys are working. It does this by measuring the amount of urea nitrogen in the blood. Urea nitrogen is a waste product that’s created in the liver when the body breaks down proteins. Normally, the kidneys filter out this waste, and urinating removes it from the body.

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A calcium blood test measures the amount of calcium in your blood. Calcium is one of the most important minerals in your body. You need calcium for healthy bones and teeth. Calcium is also essential for proper functioning of your nerves, muscles, and heart. About 99% of your body's calcium is stored in your bones. The remaining 1% circulates in the blood. If there is too much or too little calcium in the blood, it may be a sign of bone diseasethyroid diseasekidney disease, or other medical conditions.

Other names: total calcium, ionized calcium

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A calcium in urine test measures the amount of calcium in your urine. Calcium is one of the most important minerals in your body. You need calcium for healthy bones and teeth. Calcium is also essential for proper functioning of your nerves, muscles, and heart. Almost all of your body's calcium is stored in your bones. A small amount circulates in the blood, and the remainder is filtered by the kidneys and passed into your urine. If urine calcium levels are too high or too low, it may mean you have a medical condition, such as kidney disease or kidney stones. Kidney stones are hard, pebble-like substances that can form in one or both kidneys when calcium or other minerals build up in the urine. Most kidney stones are formed from calcium.

Too much or too little calcium in the blood can also indicate a kidney disorder, as well as certain bone diseases, and other medical problems. So if you have symptoms of one of these disorders, your health care provider may order a calcium blood test, along with a calcium in urine test. In addition, a calcium blood test is often included as part of a regular check-up.

Other names: urinalysis (calcium)

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Chlamydia is one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). It is a bacterial infection spread through vaginal, oral, or anal sex with an infected person. Many people with chlamydia have no symptoms, so someone may spread the disease without even knowing they are infected. A chlamydia test looks for the presence of chlamydia bacteria in your body. The disease is easily treated with antibiotics. But if it's not treated, chlamydia can cause serious complications, including infertility in women and swelling of the urethra in men.

Other names: Chlamydia NAAT or NAT, Chlamydia/GC STD Panel

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A chloride blood test measures the amount of chloride in your blood. Chloride is a type of electrolyte. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals that help control the amount of fluids and the balance of acids and bases in your body. Chloride is often measured along with other electrolytes to diagnose or monitor conditions such as kidney diseaseheart failureliver disease, and high blood pressure.

Other names: CI, Serum chloride

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Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance that's found in your blood and every cell of your body. You need some cholesterol to keep your cells and organs healthy. Your liver makes all the cholesterol your body needs. But you can also get cholesterol from the foods you eat, especially meat, eggs, poultry, and dairy products. Foods that are high in dietary fat can also make your liver produce more cholesterol.

There are two main types of cholesterol: low-density lipoprotein (LDL), or "bad" cholesterol, and high-density lipoprotein (HDL), or "good" cholesterol. A cholesterol test is a blood test that measures the amount of each type of cholesterol and certain fats in your blood.

Too much LDL cholesterol in your blood may put you at risk for heart disease and other serious conditions. High LDL levels can cause the build-up of plaque, a fatty substance that narrows the arteries and blocks blood from flowing normally. When blood flow to the heart is blocked, it can cause a heart attack. When blood flow to the brain is blocked, it can lead to stroke and peripheral artery disease.

Other names for a cholesterol test: Lipid profile, Lipid panel

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A complete blood count or CBC is a blood test that measures many different parts and features of your blood, including:

  • Red blood cells, which carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body
  • White blood cells, which fight infection. There are five major types of white blood cells. A CBC test measures the total number of white cells in your blood. A test called a CBC with differentialalso measures the number of each type of these white blood cells
  • Platelets, which help your blood to clot and stop bleeding
  • Hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen from your lungs and to the rest of your body
  • Hematocrit, a measurement of how much of your blood is made up of red blood

A complete blood count may also include measurements of chemicals and other substances in your blood. These results can give your health care provider important information about your overall health and risk for certain diseases.

Other names for a complete blood count: CBC, full blood count, blood cell count

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Cortisol is a hormone that affects almost every organ and tissue in your body. It plays an important role in helping you to:


  • Respond to stress
  • Fight infection
  • Regulate blood sugar
  • Maintain blood pressure
  • Regulate metabolism, the process of how your body uses food and energy

Cortisol is made by your adrenal glands, two small glands located above the kidneys. A cortisol test measures the level of cortisol in your blood, urine, or saliva. Blood tests are the most common way of measuring cortisol. If your cortisol levels are too high or too low, it may mean you have a disorder of your adrenal glands. These disorders can be serious if not treated.

Other names: urinary cortisol, salivary cortisol, free cortisol, dexamethasone suppression test, DST, ACTH stimulation test, blood cortisol, plasma cortisol, plasma

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Your urine contains many chemicals. Sometimes these chemicals form solids, called crystals. A crystals in urine test looks at the amount, size, and type of crystals in your urine. It's normal to have a few small urine crystals. Larger crystals or specific types of crystals can become kidney stones. Kidney stones are hard, pebble-like substances that can get stuck in the kidneys. A stone can be as small as a grain of sand, as big as a pea, or even larger. While kidney stones rarely cause serious damage, they can be very painful.

Other names: urinalysis (crystals) microscopic urine analysis, microscopic examination of urine

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A drug test looks for the presence of one or more illegal or prescription drugs in your urine, blood, saliva, hair, or sweat. Urine testing is the most common type of drug screening. The drugs most often tested for include:

  • Marijuana
  • Opioids, such as heroin, codeine, oxycodone, morphine, hydrocodone, and fentanyl
  • Amphetamines, including methamphetamine
  • Cocaine
  • Steroids
  • Barbiturates, such as phenobarbital and secobarbital
  • Phencyclidine (PCP)

Other names: drug screen, drug test, drugs of abuse testing, substance abuse testing, toxicology screen, tox screen, sports doping tests.

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Have you heard about Epithelial cells? Well, they are the most essential part of the body's protective system to protect against infections and inflammation. These cells are present in the urine in a normal percentage. However, if there's a sudden increased amount of Epithelial Cells in Urine beyond the normal range then it can lead to health issues. That's why it's important to know about Epithelial cells. In this article, we've covered Epithelial cells, their types, risk factors, and how these levels are tested. 


So, without any further delay, let's dive in.

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An erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) is a type of blood test that measures how quickly erythrocytes (red blood cells) settle at the bottom of a test tube that contains a blood sample. Normally, red blood cells settle relatively slowly. A faster-than-normal rate may indicate inflammation in the body. Inflammation is part of your immune response system. It can be a reaction to an infection or injury. Inflammation may also be a sign of a chronic disease, an immune disorder, or other medical condition.

Other names: ESR, SED rate sedimentation rate; Westergren sedimentation rate

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A fecal occult blood test (FOBT) looks at a sample of your stool (feces) to check for blood. Occult blood means that you can't see it with the naked eye. Blood in the stool means there is likely some kind of bleeding in the digestive tract. It may be caused by a variety of conditions, including:

  • Polyps
  • Hemorrhoids
  • Diverticulosis
  • Ulcers
  • Colitis, a type of inflammatory bowel disease

Blood in the stool may also be a sign of colorectal cancer, a type of cancer that starts in the colon or rectum. Colorectal cancer is the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths in the United States and the third most common cancer in men and in women. A fecal occult blood test is a screening test that may help find colorectal cancer early, when treatment is most effective.

Other names: FOBT, stool occult blood, occult blood test, Hemoccult test, guaiac smear test, gFOBT, immunochemical FOBT, iFOBT; FIT

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Globulins are a group of proteins in your blood. They are made in your liver by your immune system. Globulins play an important role in liver function, blood clotting, and fighting infection. There are four main types of globulins. They are called alpha 1, alpha 2, beta, and gamma. Just as there are different types of globulins, there are different types of globulin tests. These include:

  • Total protein test. This blood test measures two types of proteins: globulin and albumin. If protein levels are low, it can mean that you have liver or kidney disease.
  • Serum protein electrophoresis. This blood test measures gamma globulins and other proteins in your blood. It can be used to diagnose a variety of conditions, including disorders of the immune system and a type of cancer called multiple myeloma.

Other names for globulin tests: Serum globulin electrophoresis, total protein

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glucose in urine test measures the amount of glucose in your urine. Glucose is a type of sugar. It is your body's main source of energy. A hormone called insulin helps move glucose from your bloodstream into your cells. If too much glucose gets into the blood, the extra glucose will be eliminated through your urine. A urine glucose test can be used to help determine if blood glucose levels are too high, which may be a sign of diabetes.

Other names: urine sugar test; urine glucose test; glucosuria test

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A hematocrit test is a type of blood test. Your blood is made up of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. These cells and platelets are suspended in a liquid called plasma. A hematocrit test measures how much of your blood is made up of red blood cells. Red blood cells contain a protein called hemoglobin that carries oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. Hematocrit levels that are too high or too low can indicate a blood disorderdehydration, or other medical conditions.

Other names: HCT, packed cell volume, PCV, Crit; Packed Cell Volume, PCV; H and H (Hemoglobin and Hematocrit)

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A hemoglobin test measures the levels of hemoglobin in your blood. Hemoglobin is a protein in your red blood cells that carries oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. If your hemoglobin levels are abnormal, it may be a sign that you have a blood disorder.

Other names: Hb, Hgb

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Hepatitis is a type of liver disease. Viruses called hepatitis Ahepatitis B, and hepatitis C are the most common causes of hepatitis. A hepatitis panel is a blood test that checks to see if you have a hepatitis infection caused by one of these viruses.

The viruses are spread in different ways and cause different symptoms:

  • Hepatitis A is most often spread by contact with contaminated feces (stool) or by eating tainted food. Though uncommon, it can also be spread through sexual contact with an infected person. Most people recover from hepatitis A without any lasting liver damage.
  • Hepatitis B is spread through contact with infected blood, semen, or other bodily fluids. Some people recover quickly from a hepatitis B infection. For others, the virus can cause long-term, chronic liver disease.
  • Hepatitis C is most often spread by contact with infected blood, usually through sharing of hypodermic needles. Though uncommon, it can also be spread through sexual contact with an infected person. Many people with hepatitis C develop chronic liver disease and cirrhosis.

A hepatitis panel includes tests for hepatitis antibodies and antigens. Antibodies are proteins that the immune system produces to help fight infections. Antigens are substances that cause an immune response. Antibodies and antigens can be detected before symptoms appear.

Other names: acute hepatitis panel, viral hepatitis panel, hepatitis screening panel

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Breast cancer starts when cells in the breast begin to grow out of control. These cells usually form a tumor that can often be seen on an x-ray or felt as a lump. The tumor is malignant (cancer) if the cells can grow into (invade) surrounding tissues or spread (metastasize) to distant areas of the body. Breast cancer occurs almost entirely in women, but men can get breast cancer, too.

Cells in nearly any part of the body can become cancer and can spread to other areas. To learn more about cancer and how all cancers start and spread, see Cancer Basics.

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The test measures ketone levels in your urine. Normally, your body burns glucose (sugar) for energy. If your cells don't get enough glucose, your body burns fat for energy instead. This produces a substance called ketones, which can show up in your blood and urine. High ketone levels in urine may indicate diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), a complication of diabetes that can lead to a coma or even death. A ketones in urine test can prompt you to get treatment before a medical emergency occurs.

Other names: ketones urine test, ketone test, urine ketones, ketone bodies

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MPV stands for mean platelet volume. Platelets are small blood cells that are essential for blood clotting, the process that helps you stop bleeding after an injury. An MPV blood test measures the average size of your platelets. The test can help diagnose bleeding disorders and diseases of the bone marrow.

Other names: Mean Platelet Volume

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urinalysis, also called a urine test, can detect the presence of nitrites in the urine. Normal urine contains chemicals called nitrates. If bacteria enter the urinary tract, nitrates can turn into different, similarly named chemicals called nitrites. Nitrites in urine may be a sign of a urinary tract infection(UTI).

UTIs are one of the most common types of infections, especially in women. Fortunately, most UTIs are not serious and are usually treated with antibiotics. It's important to see your health care provider if you have symptoms of a UTI so you can start treatment right away.

Other names: urine test, urine analysis, microscopic urine analysis, microscopic examination of urine, UA

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potassium blood test measures the amount of potassium in your blood. Potassium is a type of electrolyte. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals in your body that help control muscle and nerve activity, maintain fluid levels, and perform other important functions. Your body needs potassium to help your heart and muscles work properly. Potassium levels that are too high or too low may indicate a medical problem.

Other names: potassium serum, serum potassium, serum electrolytes, k


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A protein in urine test measures how much protein is in your urine. Proteins are substances that are essential for your body to function properly. Protein is normally found in the blood. If there is a problem with your kidneys, protein can leak into your urine. While a small amount is normal, a large amount of protein in urine may indicate kidney disease.

Other names: urine protein, 24-hour urine protein; urine total protein; ratio; reagent strip urinalysis.

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A red cell distribution width (RDW) test is a measurement of the range in the volume and size of your red blood cells (erythrocytes). Red blood cells move oxygen from your lungs to every cell in your body. Your cells need oxygen to grow, reproduce, and stay healthy. If your red blood cells are larger than normal, it could indicate a medical problem.

Other names: RDW-SD (standard deviation) test, Erythrocyte Distribution Width

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A sodium blood test measures the amount of sodium in your blood. Sodium is a type of electrolyte. Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals that help maintain fluid levels and the balance of chemicals in your body called acids and bases. Sodium also helps your nerves and muscles work properly.

You get most of the sodium you need in your diet. Once your body takes in enough sodium, the kidneys get rid of the rest in your urine. If your sodium blood levels are too high or too low, it may mean that you have a problem with your kidneys, dehydration, or another medical condition.

Other names: Na test

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Breast enlargement is the enlargement of the breasts. It may occur naturally as in mammoplasia or may occur artificially through active intervention. Many women regard their breasts, which are female secondary sex characteristics, as important to their sexual attractiveness, as a sign of femininity that is important to their sense of self. Due to this, when a woman considers her breasts deficient in some respect, she might choose to engage in some activity intended to enhance them

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A thyroxine test helps diagnose disorders of the thyroid. The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located near the throat. Your thyroid makes hormones that regulate the way your body uses energy. It also plays an important role in regulating your weight, body temperature, muscle strength, and even your mood. Thyroxine, also known as T4, is a type of thyroid hormone. This test measures the level of T4 in your blood. Too much or too little T4 can indicate thyroid disease.

The T4 hormone comes in two forms:

  • Free T4, which enters the body tissues where it's needed
  • Bound T4, which attaches to proteins, preventing it from entering body tissues

A test that measures both free and bound T4 is called a total T4 test. Other tests measure just free T4. A free T4 test is considered more accurate than a total T4 test for checking thyroid function.

Other names: free thyroxine, free T4, total T4 concentration, thyroxine screen, free T4 concentration.

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triglycerides test measures the amount of triglycerides in your blood. Triglycerides are a type of fat in your body. If you eat more calories than you need, the extra calories are changed into triglycerides. These triglycerides are stored in your fat cells for later use. When your body needs energy, triglycerides are released into your bloodstream to provide fuel for your muscles to work. If you eat more calories than you burn off, especially calories from carbohydrates and fats, you may get high triglyceride levels in your blood. High triglycerides may put you at greater risk for a heart attack or stroke.

Other names for a triglycerides test: TG, TRIG, lipid panel, fasting lipoprotein panel.

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TSH stands for thyroid stimulating hormone. A TSH test is a blood test that measures this hormone. The thyroid is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located near your throat. Your thyroid makes hormones that regulate the way your body uses energy. It also plays an important role in regulating your weight, body temperature, muscle strength, and even your mood. TSH is made in a gland in the brain called the pituitary. When thyroid levels in your body are low, the pituitary gland makes more TSH. When thyroid levels are high, the pituitary gland makes less TSH. TSH levels that are too high or too low can indicate your thyroid isn't working correctly.

Other names: thyrotropin test.

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Vitamin D is a nutrient that is essential for healthy bones and teeth. There are two forms of vitamin D that are important for nutrition: vitamin D2 and vitamin D3. Vitamin D2 mainly comes from fortified foods like breakfast cereals, milk, and other dairy items. Vitamin D3 is made by your own body when you are exposed to sunlight. It is also found in some foods, including eggs and fatty fish, such as salmon, tuna, and mackerel.

In your bloodstream, vitamin D2 and vitamin D3 are changed into a form of vitamin D called 25 hydroxyvitamin D, also known as 25(OH)D. A vitamin D blood test measures the level of 25(OH)D in your blood. Abnormal levels of vitamin D can indicate bone disorders, nutrition problems, organ damage, or other medical conditions.

Other names: 25-hydroxyvitamin D, 25(OH)D

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Yeast is a type of fungus that can live on the skin, mouth, digestive tract, and genitals. Some yeast in the body is normal, but if there is an overgrowth of yeast on your skin or other areas, it can cause an infection. A yeast test can help determine whether you have a yeast infection. Candidiasis is another name for a yeast infection.

Other names: potassium hydroxide preparation, fungal culture; fungal antigen and antibody tests, calcofluor white stain, fungal smear.

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In India, we have an estimated 4.6 million people with corneal blindness that is curable through corneal transplantation made possible by eye donation.

The cornea is the clear surface at the front of the eye and is the main focusing element. When the cornea becomes cloudy from disease, injury, infection or any other cause, vision will be drastically reduced. Cornea transplant is the surgical procedure which replaces a disc-shaped segment of an impaired cornea with a similarly shaped piece of a healthy donor cornea. More than 90% of the corneal transplantation is carried out successfully and helps restore vision in people with corneal blindness. Corneal transplantation in infants born with cloudy cornea can make a big difference to their lives.


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The kidneys function as our body’s filters, cleaning the blood of waste and impurities. They also release hormones that regulate blood pressure, control production of red blood cells, and promote growth of healthy bones.

Those people who need kidney transplants have suffered from some form of kidney failure, which can be a result of diabetes, high blood pressure or a number of diseases that can be inherited. If left untreated, kidney failure can be fatal.


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The life-center of the body, the heart is the hardest working muscle in our bodies, responsible for pumping blood throughout the body. Just like any other muscle, it can be subject to fatigue, especially if it has been weakened by a number of cardiovascular diseases.

When damaged enough, a patient's only option may be a heart transplant. This usually follows conditions such as coronary artery disease, cardiomyopathy or weakening of the heart muscle.



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When we breathe, we do not often think of the complex process that is necessary to keep oxygen flowing through the body. The lungs are crucial to this, as they pass oxygen into the bloodstream and remove carbon dioxide that is then expelled from the body.

While a person can live a normal life with only 30 percent of lung function, there are thousands of people whose lungs have been damaged more significantly, and therefore, need a transplant to survive. Although some of the conditions that result in requiring a lung transplant are hereditary, most are caused or worsened by smoking or environmental pollution.


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A breast infection, also known as mastitis, is an infection that occurs within the tissue of the breast. Breast infections are most common among women who are breastfeeding, when bacteria from a baby's mouth enters and infects the breast. This is also known as lactation mastitis.A breast infection, also known as mastitis, is an infection that occurs within the tissue of the breast. Breast infections are most common among women who are breastfeeding, when bacteria from a baby's mouth enters and infects the breast. This is also known as lactation mastitis.

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The pancreas is the organ responsible for the production of insulin, a crucial hormone that helps our bodies turn sugar into fuel. Additionally, the pancreas also creates enzymes that break down fat, protein and carbohydrates during digestion.

An individual without a properly functioning pancreas does not have the necessary amount of insulin being produced in their bodies, and thus, there is a surplus sugar in their blood. This can cause major problems in the body, such as kidney failure, heart disease, strokes or even death. The most common cause of pancreas disease is Type I Diabetes, formerly known as juvenile diabetes.Experimental transplant of islet cells have started to be performed as a way to treat diabetes. In these instances, the insulin-producing islet cells are isolated from the donor's pancreas and injected into the patient's liver, where they begin to produce insulin for the recipient.

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Rehabilitation of sensory and cognitive function typically involves methods for retraining neural pathways or training new neural pathways to regain or improve neurocognitive functioning that has been diminished by disease or trauma. Three common neuropsychological problems treatable with rehabilitation are attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), concussion, and spinal cord injury. Rehabilitation research and practices are a fertile area for clinical neuropsychologists and others.


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The goal of wildlife rehabilitation is to provide professional care to sick, injured, and orphaned wild animals so ultimately they can be returned to their natural habitat. Wild animals that sustain injuries or illnesses preventing them from living successfully in the wild usually are euthanized (have their suffering ended in a humane fashion). Occasionally, individual animals that have recovered from their injuries but are not able to survive in the wild are placed in educational facilities.

Wildlife rehabilitation is not an attempt to turn wild animals into pets. Patients are held in captivity only until able to live independently in the wild. Fear of humans is a necessary survival trait for wild animals and every effort is made to minimize human contact and prevent the taming of rehabilitation patients. Often wildlife rehabilitation is an elaborate and time-consuming process.

Wildlife rehabilitators work with veterinarians to assess injuries and diagnose a variety of illnesses. Due to the important differences between wild animals and domestic animals, rehabilitators need extensive knowledge about the species in care, including natural history, nutritional requirements, behavioral issues, and caging considerations. They also need to understand any dangers the animals may present to rehabilitators. Rehabilitators must also be able to administer basic first aid and physical therapy, and understand any dangers the animals may present to rehabilitators.

Almost all birds are protected by federal law; state laws protect most other kinds of wildlife. To work with mammals, reptiles, and amphibians, wildlife rehabilitators must be issued special permits from their state wildlife agencies. Before receiving these permits, individuals must meet various requirements such as specialized training, participation in mentorship programs, facility inspections, and written or oral exams. Rehabilitators who wish to care for birds also must get permits from the US Fish & Wildlife Service. Once they receive the permits, conscientious rehabilitators continue their education by attending conferences, seminars, and workshops, keeping up with published literature, and networking with others in the field. 



Because of their training, wildlife rehabilitators can help concerned people decide whether an animal truly needs help. Young birds and mammals should be returned to their families if at all possible; even well trained rehabilitators are not equivalent replacements for biological parents. Rehabilitators can provide instructions on how to reunite wildlife families, keeping the safety of the animals and the rescuers in mind, and they can suggest humane, long-term solutions when conflicts arise between humans and their wild neighbors. 



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Drug rehabilitation (often drug rehab or just rehab) is the processes of medical or psychotherapeutic  treatment for dependency on psychoactive substances such as alcohol, prescription drugs, and street drugs such as cocaine, heroin or amphetamines. The general intent is to enable the patient to confront substance dependence, if present, and cease substance abuse to avoid the psychological, legal, financial, social, and physical consequences that can be caused, especially by extreme abuse. Treatment includes medication for depression or other disorders, counseling by experts and sharing of experience with other addicts.


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Occupational rehabilitation is the process of restoring function to injured workers so they can return to work. Rehabilitation professionals assess the needs of the person and the demands of the workplace in order to develop a plan of action to get the employee back to work that is suitable and safe for him as soon as possible. Depending on the type of injury, the individual may have to be trained in a new line of work.

A number of professionals are involved in the practice of occupational rehabilitation. Doctors, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, psychologists and massage therapists all have a different role in the rehabilitation of injured workers. Some of the problems treated by these clinicians are amputations, overuse injuries, back pain, neck pain, headaches, fractures, spinal cord injuries, and a host of other injuries.

Increased computer usage has resulted in a growing number of people seeking occupational rehabilitation because of common overuse conditions such as carpal tunnel syndrome, tendonitis, as well as problems brought on by poor sustained postures such as thoracic outlet syndrome or cervical headaches. Other common work injuries are lower back problems such as intervertebral disc bulges especially among those who work with heavy machinery. Physiotherapists and occupational therapists work together to improve the employee's posture (standing as well as sitting), the ergonomics of the work place and the way the individual performs his duties. Many problems like shoulder, back and neck pain, which were believed to be chronic, have been improved by making adjustments in workplace ergonomics and posture and through exercise programmes to restore correct muscle balance and joint alignment.

Active rehabilitation programmes in gym-based settings are a proactive way to rehabilitate injured workers. Once the initial injury has been treated by the physiotherapist in the clinic, many physiotherapists are now designing and supervising exercise programmes in local gymnasiums. These exercise programmes aim to accelerate the return of strength and function of the injured workers and prevent re-injury on their return to work, often with excellent results. Many patients finish the rehabilitation programmes stronger and fitter than before they were even injured and with a renewed passion for exercise!

By participating in active rehabilitation, injured workers can prevent loss of wages due to injuries and can enjoy a more productive working environment. Employers can preserve their bottom line by avoiding decreased man-hours and ongoing medical expenses. With a physiotherapy prescribed rehabilitation programme everyone benefits.

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Physical medicine and rehabilitation (PM&R), also known as physiatry or rehabilitation medicine, aims to enhance and restore functional ability and quality of life to those with physical impairments or disabilities affecting the brain, spinal cord, nerves, bones, joints, ligaments, muscles, and tendons. A physician having completed training in this field is referred to as a physiatrist. Unlike other medical specialties that focus on a medical “cure,” the goals of the physiatrist are to maximize patients’ independence in activities of daily living and improve quality of life.

Physiatrists are experts in designing comprehensive, patient-centered treatment plans, and are integral members of the care team. They utilize cutting-edge as well as time-tested treatments to maximize function and quality of life for their patients, who can range in age from infants to octogenarians.

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By definition, physical therapy is a unique science and art that utilizes a wide variety of procedures to restore function to the body, reduce pain and help prevent future injury. When daily life is altered due to an injury, accident, chronic medical condition or re-injury, we realize we are responsible for helping to put our patients' lives back on course and help each individual get back to life.Physical therapy utilizes a variety of evidence-based treatments, physical exercises and hands-on modalities to begin the rehabilitation process at the onset of injury or pain.


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Psychosocial rehabilitation (also termed psychiatric rehabilitation or PSR) promotes personal recovery, successful community integration and satisfactory quality of life for persons who have a mental illness or mental health concern.  Psychosocial rehabilitation services and supports are collaborative, person directed, and individualized, and an essential element of the human services spectrum.  They focus on helping individuals develop skills and access resources needed to increase their capacity to be successful and satisfied in the living, working, learning and social environments of their choice and include a wide continuum of services and supports.  (PSR/RPS Canada, 2013)

PSR approaches are evidence-based best and promising practices in the key life domains of Employment, Education, Leisure, Wellness and Basic Living Skills as well as Family Involvement and Peer Support and Peer Delivered services. Because of their demonstrated effectiveness and recovery orientation, these approaches should be widely available to people living with long term mental illness and/or substance use problems.

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Vision rehabilitation is the process of treatment and education that helps individuals who are visually disabled attain maximum function, a sense of well being, a personally satisfying level of independence, and optimum quality of life. Function is maximized by evaluation, diagnosis and treatment including, but not limited to, the prescription of optical, non-optical, electronic and/or other treatments. The rehabilitation process includes the development of an individual rehabilitation plan specifying clinical therapy and/or instruction in compensatory approaches.

Vision rehabilitation may be necessitated by any condition, disease, or injury that causes a visual impairment which results in functional limitation or disability. In addition to the evaluation, diagnosis and management of visual impairment by an eye care physician (optometrist or ophthalmologist), vision rehabilitation may include, but is not limited to, optometric, medical, allied health, social, educational and psychological services.

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Breast milk is the milk produced by the breasts (or mammary glands) of a human female to feed a child. Milk is the primary source of nutrition for newborns before they are able to eat and digest other foods; older infants and toddlers may continue to be breastfed, either exclusively or in combination with other foods from around six months of age when solid foods may be introduced.

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Vocational rehabilitation services are based on individual needs and defined as any goods or services an individual might need to be employable, such as assistive technology devices and services. For instance, a person who is blind would need screen reading software to access a computer and people with a cognitive or mental disability might need a talking electronic reminder device programmed to prompt them when it is time to perform certain tasks.

Vocational rehabilitation can be provided by private organizations, but is not typically funded under managed care arrangements. Thus, most people apply to state vocational rehabilitation agencies that are funded through federal and state monies. Typically, state agencies have offices in their state's major cities and towns. State VR agencies do not necessarily offer the same services or deliver services in the same way in every state, so individuals seeking services must learn how to access the VR program in their own state. The federal VR component is administered by the U.S. Department of Education Rehabilitation Services Administration and authorized by the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 as amended in the 1988 reauthorization.Most vocational rehabilitation services are free for eligible applicants; however, applicants may be asked to use other benefits, such as: insurance, Pell grants or other financial aid for training or higher education, to pay part of program costs.

Best practices in vocational rehabilitation include individual choice, person-centered planning, integrated setting, natural supports, rapid placement, and career development. The term integrated setting refers to placing individuals in usual employment situations rather than making placements into sheltered workshops or other segregated settings. Natural supports are the person's already existing support network, including family members, service providers, and friends, who can help the person reach a goal, such as the employment of their choice. Person-centered planning is a technique in which a plan for a person's future is developed by a team consisting of the person and his or her natural supports, and the team develops a practical plan based on the person's wishes and dreams. Each teammember agrees to perform certain tasks identified in the plan to help the person reach goals. Unfortunately, not all VR programs incorporate all of these best practices.


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A blood donation occurs when a person voluntarily has blood drawn and used for transfusions and/or made into biopharmaceutical medications by a process called fractionation (separation of whole-blood components). Donation may be of whole blood (WB), or of specific components directly (the latter called apheresis). Blood banks often participate in the collection process as well as the procedures that follow it.

Today in the developed world, most blood donors are unpaid volunteers who donate blood for a community supply. In poorer countries, established supplies are limited and donors usually give blood when family or friends need a transfusion (directed donation). Many donors donate as an act of charity, but in countries that allow paid donation some donors are paid, and in some cases there are incentives other than money such as paid time off from work. Donors can also have blood drawn for their own future use (autologous donation). Donating is relatively safe, but some donors have bruising where the needle is inserted or may feel faint.

Potential donors are evaluated for anything that might make their blood unsafe to use. The screening includes testing for diseases that can be transmitted by a blood transfusion, including HIV and viral hepatitis. The donor must also answer questions about medical history and take a short physical examination to make sure the donation is not hazardous to his or her health. How often a donor can donate varies from days to months based on what component they donate and the laws of the country where the donation takes place. For example, in the United States, donors must wait eight weeks (56 days) between whole blood donations but only seven days between plateletpheresis donations and twice per seven-day period in plasmapheresis.

The amount of blood drawn and the methods vary. The collection can be done manually or with automated equipment that takes only specific components of the blood. Most of the components of blood used for transfusions have a short shelf life, and maintaining a constant supply is a persistent problem. This has led to some increased interest in autotransfusion, whereby a patient's blood is salvaged during surgery for continuous reinfusion—or alternatively, is "self-donated" prior to when it will be needed. (Generally, the notion of "donation" does not refer to giving to one's self, though in this context it has become somewhat acceptably idiomatic.)

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As an O Positive donor you are incredibly important to maintaining the blood supply in our community. O Positive is the most common blood type and therefore needed by so many patients.

Annually, more than 120,000 units of blood, platelets and plasma are required to meet the needs of the hospitals we serve, and your blood type is crucial to maintaining an adequate supply. We are grateful to you for so willingly giving the “gift of life”, and through your continued commitment, we are able to maintain our heritage of service to those in need. 1 in 3 people have O+ blood (approximately 37.4% of the population).


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As an A Positive donor you are incredibly important to maintaining the blood supply in our community. A Positive is the second most common blood type and therefore just as many patients need this blood type.

Annually, more than 120,000 units of blood, platelets and plasma are required to meet the needs of the hospitals we serve, and your blood type is crucial to maintaining an adequate supply.  We are grateful to you for so willingly giving the “gift of life”, and through your continued commitment, we are able to maintain our heritage of service to those in need. 1 in 3 people have A+ blood (approximately 35.7% of the population).


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An individual’s blood type is determined by the genes inherited from his/her parents. 


Whether your blood type is common, rare, or somewhere in between, your donations are vital in maintaining a good supply of that blood type in your community. To save and improve the lives of individuals living there who are in need. 


Therefore, keep doing the noble job of blood donation regularly and register your name for a good cause.


Read Also: B Negative Blood

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As an AB blood donor, you have a unique opportunity to enhance your generous “gift of life”. People with AB Negative (.6% of the population) and AB Positive (3.4%) are potential universal plasma donors.  You may not know, but there is a special need for AB Plasma.In addition to being the most rare blood type, AB Plasma is universal and can be used for all patients regardless of their blood type. Plasma is used to treat clotting disorders, burn, and shock victims. Your plasma donation is especially important to maintaining sufficient supplies for our community, and with regular and frequent plasma donations you’ll be helping hundreds of patients in our area. Almost anyone who is a whole blood donor can donate plasma. You are eligible if you are at least 17 years old, weigh at least 110 pounds and are in generally good health.  You can donate plasma every 28 days.



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Only 6.3% of the population has A Negative blood. Because your blood is rare, it is important to maintain sufficient supplies for our community and local patients. Your regular and frequent blood donations are especially valued, and many in our area will be given a fighting chance at life because of your generous gift. 1 in 16 people have A- blood (approximately 6.3% of the population).


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Breast pain is any discomfort, tenderness, or pain in the breast or underarm region, and it may occur for a number of reasons. Generally, breast pain is not a sign of breast cancer.Breast pain is any discomfort, tenderness, or pain in the breast or underarm region, and it may occur for a number of reasons. Generally, breast pain is not a sign of breast cancer.

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Regular health exams and tests can help find problems before they start. They also can help find problems early, when your chances for treatment and cure are better. Which exams and screenings you need depends on your age, health and family history, and lifestyle choices such as what you eat, how active you are, and whether you smoke.


To make the most of your next check-up, here are some things to do before you go:

Review your family health history

Find out if you are due for any general screenings or vaccinations

Write down a list of issues and questions to take with you


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Breasts develop from embryological tissues, and the high estrogen level in females during puberty causes breasts to start growing bigger.

Breasts are mammary glands composed of layers of different types of tissue, including adipose, glandular and connective tissues. As these tissues have hormone receptors, there is often fluctuation in breast sizes and volumes based on hormonal changes in the body.

As breasts are considered a sign of femininity and beauty, women want their breasts to be perfectly shaped and sized. However, at times the breasts become larger in size, which can be due to several factors including genetics, obesity, pregnancy, breastfeeding, hormonal changes in the body and side effects of certain drugs.

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Anaphylaxis is a rapidly developing and serious allergic reaction that can affect multiple body systems at the same time. Severe anaphylactic reactions can be fatal. Anaphylaxis is often triggered by substances that are injected or ingested and thereby gain access into the bloodstream. This can result in a reaction involving the skin, lungs, nose, throat, and gastrointestinal tract.

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A significant association exists between rhinitis (allergic), asthma, and chronic sinusitis (inflammation of the sinuses for more than 12 weeks) in some individuals. Some evidence suggests that up to 3 of every 5 patients have multiple conditions.


Post-nasal drip is mucus accumulation in the back of the nose and throat leading to, or giving the sensation of, mucus dripping downward from the back of the nose. One of the most common characteristics of chronic rhinitis is post-nasal drip. Post-nasal drip may lead to chronic sore throat, chronic cough, or throat clearing. Post-nasal drip can be caused by excessive or thick mucus secretions or impairment in the normal clearance of mucus from the nose and throat.

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Latex allergy is a reaction to certain proteins found in natural rubber latex, a product made from the rubber tree. If you have a latex allergy, your body mistakes latex for a harmful substance.


Latex allergy may cause itchy skin and hives or even anaphylaxis, a potentially life-threatening condition that can cause throat swelling and severe difficulty breathing. Your doctor can determine if you have a latex allergy or if you're at risk of developing a latex allergy.


Understanding latex allergy and knowing common sources of latex can help you prevent allergic reactions.

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Urinary incontinence — the loss of bladder control — is a common and often embarrassing problem. The severity ranges from occasionally leaking urine when you cough or sneeze to having an urge to urinate that's so sudden and strong you don't get to a toilet in time.


Though it occurs more often as people get older, urinary incontinence isn't an inevitable consequence of aging. If urinary incontinence affects your daily activities, don't hesitate to see your doctor. For most people, simple lifestyle changes or medical treatment can ease discomfort or stop urinary incontinence

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Dementia isn't a specific disease. Instead, dementia describes a group of symptoms affecting memory, thinking and social abilities severely enough to interfere with daily functioning.


Though dementia generally involves memory loss, memory loss has different causes. So memory loss alone doesn't mean you have dementia.


Alzheimer's disease is the most common cause of a progressive dementia in older adults, but there are a number of causes of dementia. Depending on the cause, some dementia symptoms can be reversed.

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Ankylosing spondylitis is a form of chronic inflammation of the spine and the sacroiliac joints. The sacroiliac joints are located at the base of the low back where the sacrum (the bone directly above the tailbone) meets the iliac bones (bones on either side of the upper buttocks) of the pelvis. Chronic inflammation in these areas causes pain and stiffness in and around the spine, including the neck, middle back, lower back, and buttocks. Over time, chronic inflammation of the spine (spondylitis) can lead to a complete cementing together (fusion) of the vertebrae, a process referred to as ankylosis. Ankylosis causes loss of mobility of the spine.

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Some people might hear “psoriasis” and think of the skin disease that causes itchy, scaly rashes and crumbling nails. It's true, psoriasis is an autoimmune disease that primarily affects the skin. But about 30 percent of people with psoriasis also develop a form of inflammatory arthritis called psoriatic arthritis (PsA). Like psoriasis, PsA is an autoimmune disease, meaning it occurs when the body’s immune system mistakenly attacks healthy tissue, in this case the joints and skin. The faulty immune response causes inflammation that triggers joint pain, stiffness and swelling. The inflammation can affect the entire body and may lead to permanent joint and tissue damage if it is not treated early and aggressively.Most people with psoriatic arthritis have skin symptoms before joint symptoms. However, sometimes the joint pain and stiffness strikes first. In some cases, people get psoriatic arthritis without any skin changes.The disease may lay dormant in the body until triggered by some outside influence, such as a common throat infection. Another theory suggesting that bacteria on the skin triggers the immune response that leads to joint inflammation has yet to be proven.


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Reactive arthritis is a type of arthritis that an infection in the body can trigger. Most commonly, a sexually transmitted infection or bacterial infection in the intestines triggers development of reactive arthritis.It’s considered to be an autoimmune disease of the spondyloarthritis group. The arthritis often doesn’t develop until after the infection has been successfully treatedPeople with reactive arthritis often experience symptoms in the larger joints of the lower extremity. Reactive arthritis was previously known as Reiter’s syndrome, a triad of arthritis, eye inflammation (conjunctivitis), and urinary tract inflammation (urethritis).The condition was previously thought to be uncommon. According to the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS), men develop reactive arthritis more often than women, but the diagnosis is more difficult in women. The average age of onset is 30 years old. Men also tend to experience more severe joint pain than women.


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Onychoschizia or splitting of the fingernails is a common problem seen by dermatologists. The term onychoschizia includes splitting, brittle, soft or thin nails. Onychoschizia is more common in women. Only very rarely are internal disease or vitamin deficiencies the reason (iron deficiency is the most common).

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The brain is the body organ composed of nerve cells and supportive tissues like glial cells and meninges – there are three major parts – they control your activity like breathing (brain stem), activity like moving muscles to walk (cerebellum) and your senses like sight and our memory, emotions, thinking and personality (cerebrum).

Primary brain tumors can be either malignant (contain cancer cells) or benign (do not contain cancer cells). A primary brain tumor is a tumor which begins in the brain tissue. If a cancerous tumor starts elsewhere in the body, it can spread cancer cells, which grow in the brain. These type of tumors are called secondary or metastatic brain tumors.

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Degenerative disc disease is not really a disease but a term used to describe the normal changes in your spinal discs camera.gif as you age. Spinal discs are soft, compressible discs that separate the interlocking bones (vertebrae) that make up the spine. The discs act as shock absorbers for the spine, allowing it to flex, bend, and twist. Degenerative disc disease can take place throughout the spine, but it most often occurs in the discs in the lower back (lumbar region) and the neck (cervical region).

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Encephalitis is a rare condition that is most often caused by viruses.

It can also be caused by noninfectious diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus and Behçet's disease.

The leading cause of severe encephalitis is the herpes simplex virus.

Other causes include enterovirus infections or mosquito-borne viruses.

The very young and the elderly are more likely to have more severe encephalitis.

Exposure to viruses can occur through breathing in respiratory droplets from infected people, certain insect bites, and direct skin contact.


Meningitis is inflammation of the membranes (meninges) that surround the brain and spinal cord.

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Eustachian tubes are small tubes that run between your middle ears and the upper throat. They are responsible for equalizing ear pressure and draining fluid from the middle ear, the part of the ear behind the eardrum. The eustachian tubes are usually closed except for when you chew, swallow, or yawn.


These passageways are small in size and can get plugged for a variety of reasons. Blocked eustachian tubes can cause pain, hearing difficulties, and a feeling of fullness in the ears. Such a phenomenon is referred to as eustachian tube dysfunction (ETD).


ETD is a relatively common condition. Depending on the cause, it may resolve on its own or through simple at-home treatment measures. Severe or recurring cases may require a visit to the doctor.

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Age spots are the result of an excess production of melanin, or skin pigment. Doctors don't always know why age spots develop. Skin aging, sun exposure, or other forms of ultraviolet (UV) light exposure, such as tanning beds, are all possible causes.

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Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition that's triggered by a terrifying event — either experiencing it or witnessing it. Symptoms may include flashbacks, nightmares and severe anxiety, as well as uncontrollable thoughts about the event.Most people who go through traumatic events may have temporary difficulty adjusting and coping, but with time and good self-care, they usually get better. If the symptoms get worse, last for months or even years, and interfere with your day-to-day functioning, you may have PTSD.Getting effective treatment after PTSD symptoms develop can be critical to reduce symptoms and improve function

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Seasonal affective disorder* is a form of depression also known as SAD, seasonal depression or winter depression. People with SAD experience mood changes and symptoms similar to depression. The symptoms usually occur during the fall and winter months when there is less sunlight and usually improve with the arrival of spring. The most difficult months for people with SAD in the U.S. tend to be January and February. While it is much less common, some people experience SAD in the summer.SAD is more than just “winter blues.” The symptoms can be distressing and overwhelming and can interfere with daily functioning. However, it can be treated. About 5 percent of adults in the U.S. experience SAD and it typically lasts about 40 percent of the year. It is more common among women than men.SAD has been linked to a biochemical imbalance in the brain prompted by shorter daylight hours and less sunlight in winter. As seasons change, people experience a shift in their biological internal clock or circadian rhythm that can cause them to be out of step with their daily schedule. SAD is more common in people living far from the equator where there are fewer daylight hours in the winter.


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Diabetes mellitus (or diabetes) is a chronic, lifelong condition that affects your body's ability to use the energy found in food. There are three major types of diabetes: type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, and gestational diabetes.


All types of diabetes mellitus have something in common. Normally, your body breaks down the sugars and carbohydrates you eat into a special sugar called glucose. Glucose fuels the cells in your body. But the cells need insulin, a hormone, in your bloodstream in order to take in the glucose and use it for energy. With diabetes mellitus, either your body doesn't make enough insulin, it can't use the insulin it does produce, or a combination of both.


Since the cells can't take in the glucose, it builds up in your blood. High levels of blood glucose can damage the tiny blood vessels in your kidneys, heart, eyes, or nervous system. That's why diabetes -- especially if left untreated -- can eventually cause heart disease, stroke, kidney disease, blindness, and nerve damage to nerves in the feet.

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Diabetes insipidus (die-uh-BEE-teze in-SIP-uh-dus) is an uncommon disorder that causes an imbalance of water in the body. This imbalance leads to intense thirst even after drinking fluids (polydipsia), and excretion of large amounts of urine (polyuria).


While the names diabetes insipidus and diabetes mellitus sound similar, they're not related. Diabetes mellitus — which can occur as type 1 or type 2 — is the more common form of diabetes.


There's no cure for diabetes insipidus, but treatments are available to relieve your thirst and normalize your urine output.

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Indigestion (dyspepsia) is a functional disease in which the gastrointestinal (GI) organs, primarily the stomach and first part of the small intestine (and occasionally the esophagus), function abnormally. It is a chronic disease in which the symptoms fluctuate in frequency and intensity usually over many months or years. It may occur every day or intermittently for days or weeks at a time followed by days or weeks of relief (a pattern referred to as periodicity).

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Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is an umbrella term used to describe disorders that involve chronic inflammation of your digestive tract. Types of IBD include:


Ulcerative colitis. This condition causes long-lasting inflammation and sores (ulcers) in the innermost lining of your large intestine (colon) and rectum.

Crohn's disease. This type of IBD is characterized by inflammation of the lining of your digestive tract, which often spreads deep into affected tissues.

Both ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease usually involve severe diarrhea, abdominal pain, fatigue and weight loss.

IBD can be debilitating and sometimes leads to life-threatening complications.

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 Burns are a serious public health problem. A burn is defined as an injury to the skin or other organic tissue primarily caused by heat or due to radiation, radioactivity, electricity, friction or contact with chemicals.

Heat burns occur when some or all of the different layers of cells in the skin are destroyed by a hot liquid (scald), a hot solid (contact burn) or a flame (flame burn). Skin injuries due to ultraviolet radiation, radioactivity, electricity or chemicals, as well as respiratory damage resulting from smoke inhalation, are also considered as burns.

According to WHO estimates about 265 000 deaths occur each year from fires alone globally, with more deaths from scalds, electrical burns, and other forms of burns for which data are not available. The majority of these deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries, with almost half occur in the WHO South-East Asia Region.

In India around 7 million people suffer from burn injuries each year with 1.4 lakh deaths and 2.4 lakh people suffer with disability. Burn death rates have been decreasing in high income countries.

Females and males show similar rates for burns in contrast to other injury patterns where rates of injury are higher in males than females. The higher risk for females is associated with open fire cooking, or unsafe cook stoves, loose clothing. Self-directed or interpersonal violence is also a factor for burn injuries.

Along with adult females, children are also vulnerable to burns. Out of 5 burn victims 4 are women and children. Burns are the fifth most common cause of non-fatal childhood injuries and 11th leading cause of death of children aged 1-9 years. Among all people globally, infants have the highest death rates from burns.

Burns are also a leading cause of morbidity; millions who survive suffer from lifelong disability and disfigurements with resulting emotional trauma and stigma.

Burns are preventable. Increased efforts in prevention and care would lead to significant reduction in burn-related morbidity, mortality and disability.

The National Programme for Prevention, Management and Rehabilitation of Burn Injuries (NPPMRBI) is an initiative by the Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India to strengthen the preventive, curative and rehabilitative services for burn victims.

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A cataract is an eye disease in which the clear lens of the eye becomes cloudy or opaque, causing a decrease in vision. Although the word cataract to describe this condition has been part of the English language since only the 15th century, the eye disease has been recognized and surgically treated since ancient times.


The lens is a portion of the eye that is normally clear. It focuses rays of light entering the eye onto the retina, the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye. In order to get a clear image onto the retina, the portions of the eye in front of the retina, including the lens, must be clear and transparent. The light striking the retina initiates a chemical reaction within the retina. The chemical reaction, in turn, initiates an electrical response which is carried to the brain through the optic nerve. The brain then interprets what the eye sees.


In a normal eye, light passes through the transparent lens to the retina. The lens must be clear for the retina to receive a sharp image. If the lens is cloudy from a cataract, the image striking the retina will be blurry or distorted and the vision will be blurry. The extent of the visual disturbance is dependent upon the degree of cloudiness of the lens.


Most cataracts are related to aging. Cataracts are very common in older people. By age 80, more than half of all Americans either have some degree of cataract or have already undergone cataract surgery in one or both eyes. By age 95, this percentage increases to almost 100%. A cataract can occur in either or both eyes. Individuals with a cataract in one eye usually go on to develop a cataract in the other eye as well. A cataract is not contagious and cannot spread from one eye to the other or from person to person. Cataracts do not cause the eye to tear abnormally. They are neither painful nor make the eye itchy or red.

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The retina is the light-sensitive layer of tissue that lines the inside of the eye and sends visual messages through the optic nerve to the brain. When the retina detaches, it is lifted or pulled from its normal position. If not promptly treated, retinal detachment can cause permanent vision loss.In some cases there may be small areas of the retina that are torn. These areas, called retinal tears or retinal breaks, can lead to retinal detachment.


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Acupressure [from Latin acus "needle" (see acuity) + pressure (n.)] is an alternative medicine technique similar in principle to acupuncture. It is based on the concept of life energy which flows through "meridians" in the body. In treatment, physical pressure is applied to acupuncture points with the aim of clearing blockages in these meridians. Pressure may be applied by hand, by elbow, or with various devices.

Some medical studies have suggested that acupressure may be effective at helping manage nausea and vomiting, for helping lower back pain, tension headaches, stomach ache, among other things, although such studies have been found to have a high likelihood of bias. Like many alternative medicines, it may benefit from a placebo effect.

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A burning sensation in your feet may be caused by nerve damage in the legs, also called neuropathy. Although many medical conditions can cause burning feet, diabetes is the most common. Most burning feet treatments focus on preventing further nerve damage and reducing pain.

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The "murmur" is the sound of blood flowing. It may be passing through a problem heart valve, for instance. Or it may be that a condition makes your heart beat faster and forces your heart to handle more blood quicker than normal.

Most are innocent and don't require any treatment.

But there are exceptions. Murmurs can be linked to a damaged or overworked heart valve. Some people are born with valve problems. Others get them as a part of aging or from other heart problems.

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Palpitations make you feel like your heart is beating too hard or too fast, skipping a beat, or fluttering. You may notice heart palpitations in your chest, throat, or neck.

They can be bothersome or frightening. They usually aren't serious or harmful, though, and often go away on their own. Most of the time, they're caused by stress and anxiety, or because you’ve had too much caffeine, nicotine, or alcohol. They can also happen when you’re pregnant.

In rare cases, palpitations can be a sign of a more serious heart condition. So, if you have heart palpitations, see your doctor. Get immediate medical attention if they come with:

Shortness of breath

Dizziness

Chest pain

Fainting

After your doctor takes your medical history and looks you over, he may order tests to find the cause. If he finds one, the right treatment can reduce or get rid of the palpitations.

If there’s no underlying cause, lifestyle changes can help, including stress management.

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Cirrhosis is a complication of many liver diseases characterized by abnormal structure and function of the liver. The diseases that lead to cirrhosis do so because they injure and kill liver cells, after which the inflammation and repair that is associated with the dying liver cells causes scar tissue to form. The liver cells that do not die multiply in an attempt to replace the cells that have died. This results in clusters of newly-formed liver cells (regenerative nodules) within the scar tissue. There are many causes of cirrhosis including chemicals (such as alcohol, fat, and certain medications), viruses, toxic metals (such as iron and copper that accumulate in the liver as a result of genetic diseases), and autoimmune liver disease in which the body's immune system attacks the liver.

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Cryoglobulinemia is a medical condition that is caused by proteins called cryoglobulins, which are present in the blood. Cryoglobulins are abnormal proteins that by definition have the unusual property of precipitating from the serum when it is chilled in the laboratory and then dissolves back into the serum upon rewarming.


Cryoglobulins may or may not cause disease. Cryoglobulins can accompany another condition (such as dermatomyositis, multiple myeloma, viral infections, or lymphoma) or be an isolated condition themselves, called cryoglobulinemia.

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Hepatitis B is a virus that infects the liver camera.gif. Most adults who get it have it for a short time and then get better. This is called acute hepatitis B.


Sometimes the virus causes a long-term infection, called chronic hepatitis B. Over time, it can damage your liver. Babies and young children infected with the virus are more likely to get chronic hepatitis B.


You can have hepatitis B and not know it. You may not have symptoms. If you do, they can make you feel like you have the flu. But as long as you have the virus, you can spread it to others.


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Botulism (or botulism poisoning) is a rare but very serious illness that transmits through food, contact with contaminated soil, or through an open wound. Without early treatment, botulism can lead to paralysis, breathing difficulties, and death.

There are three main types of botulism:

    infant botulism
    foodborne botulism
    wound botulism

Botulism poisoning is due to a toxin produced by a type of bacteria called Clostridium botulinum. Although very common, these bacteria can only thrive in conditions where there’s no oxygen. Certain food sources, such as home-canned foods, provide a potent breeding ground.

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), about 145 cases of botulism are reported every year in the United States. About 3 to 5 percent of those with botulism poisoning die.

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Staph infections are caused by staphylococcus bacteria, types of germs commonly found on the skin or in the nose of even healthy individuals. Most of the time, these bacteria cause no problems or result in relatively minor skin infections.

But staph infections can turn deadly if the bacteria invade deeper into your body, entering your bloodstream, joints, bones, lungs or heart. A growing number of otherwise healthy people are developing life-threatening staph infections.

Treatment usually involves antibiotics and drainage of the infected area. However, some staph infections no longer respond to common antibiotics.

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Calluses are hard and rough-feeling areas of skin that can develop on hands, feet or anywhere there is repeated friction - even on a violinist's chin. Like corns, calluses have several variants. The common callus usually occurs when there has been a lot of rubbing against the hands or feet. A plantar callus is found on the bottom of the foot.Calluses are hard and rough-feeling areas of skin that can develop on hands, feet or anywhere there is repeated friction - even on a violinist's chin. Like corns, calluses have several variants. The common callus usually occurs when there has been a lot of rubbing against the hands or feet. A plantar callus is found on the bottom of the foot.

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Thrush (oropharyngeal candidiasis) is a medical condition in which a yeast-shaped fungus called Candida overgrows in the mouth and throat. Candida is normally present in the mouth, digestive tract, and skin of most healthy people. The immune system and the body's normal bacteria usually keep Candida in balance. When this balance is interrupted, it can result in an overgrowth of the Candida fungus, causing thrush, a yeast infection of the mouth or throat.

Thrush is not the same as a vaginal yeast infection. However, the Candida fungus also causes diaper rash, but diaper rash occurs on a child's rear end, genitals, and inner thighs, while oral thrush occurs in the mouth and throat. Adults may get yeast infections in areas of overlapping skin, such as underneath breasts or in skin folds like creases in skin due to fatty tissue.

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West Nile fever is a viral infection typically spread by mosquitoes. In about 75% of infections people have few or no symptoms. About 20% of people develop a fever, headache, vomiting, or a rash

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Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease is an umbrella term for a range of liver conditions affecting people who drink little to no alcohol. As the name implies, the main characteristic of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease is too much fat stored in liver cells.

Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, a potentially serious form of the disease, is marked by liver inflammation, which may progress to scarring and irreversible damage. This damage is similar to the damage caused by heavy alcohol use. At its most severe, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis can progress to cirrhosis and liver failureNonalcoholic fatty liver disease is increasingly common around the world, especially in Western nations. In the United States, it is the most common form of chronic liver disease, affecting an estimated 80 to 100 million people.

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease occurs in every age group but especially in people in their 40s and 50s who are at high risk of heart disease because of such risk factors as obesity and type 2 diabetes. The condition is also closely linked to metabolic syndrome, which is a cluster of abnormalities including increased abdominal fat, poor ability to use the hormone insulin, high blood pressure and high blood levels of triglycerides, a type of fat.


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Hemochromatosis is a disease in which too much iron builds up in your body. Your body needs iron but too much of it is toxic. If you have hemochromatosis, you absorb more iron than you need. Your body has no natural way to get rid of the extra iron. It stores it in body tissues, especially the liver, heart, and pancreas. The extra iron can damage your organs. Without treatment, it can cause your organs to fail.There are two types of hemochromatosis. Primary hemochromatosis is an inherited disease. Secondary hemochromatosis is usually the result of something else, such as anemia, thalassemia, liver disease, or blood transfusions.

Many symptoms of hemochromatosis are similar to those of other diseases. Not everyone has symptoms. If you do, you may have joint pain, fatigue, general weakness, weight loss, and stomach pain.Your doctor will diagnose hemochromatosis based on your medical and family histories, a physical exam, and the results from tests and procedures. Treatments include removing blood (and iron) from your body, medicines, and changes in your diet.

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Liver blood tests are designed to show evidence that abnormalities, for example, inflammation, liver cell damage, has or is occurring within the liver.The blood tests most frequently used for liver disease are the aminotransferases (alanine aminotransferase or ALT and aspartate aminotransferase or AST).Normal levels of ALT ranges from about 7-56 units/liter, and 10-40units/liters for AST.Elevated levels of AST and ALT may signify the level of liver damage in a person.Common causes of elevated ALT and AST areheart failure.

Many drugs may cause elevated AST, and ALT and some medications can cause severe damage (for example, acetaminophen [Tylenol liver damage]).Less common causes of abnormal AST and ALT levels are wide ranging (for example, toxins, and autoimmune diseases)People with mild to moderate elevations of AST and ALT with no or few symptoms should follow-up with their doctor for potential underlying causes of elevated AST and/or ALT.Repeated test levels (monitoring) is useful in some patients (for example, viral-caused and Tylenol-caused elevations) to guide therapeutic treatments.Other liver enzymes, although not measured routinely, may add additional information about liver functions.

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PSC is a disease that damages and blocks bile ducts inside and outside the liver. Bile is a liquid made in the liver. Bile ducts are tubes that carry bile out of the liver to the gallbladder and small intestine. In the intestine, bile helps break down fat in food.

In PSC, inflammation of the bile ducts leads to scar formation and narrowing of the ducts over time. As scarring increases, the ducts become blocked. As a result, bile builds up in the liver and damages liver cells. Eventually, scar tissue can spread throughout the liver, causing cirrhosis and liver failure.


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Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is an umbrella term used to describe progressive lung diseases including emphysema, chronic bronchitis, refractory (non-reversible) asthma, and some forms of bronchiectasis. This disease is characterized by increasing breathlessness.

Many people mistake their increased breathlessness and coughing as a normal part of aging. In the early stages of the disease, you may not notice the symptoms. COPD can develop for years without noticeable shortness of breath. You begin to see the symptoms in the more developed stages of the disease. That’s why it is important that you talk to your doctor as soon as you notice any of these symptoms. Ask your doctor about taking a spirometry test.


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Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a serious form of pneumonia. It is caused by a virus that was first identified in 2003. Infection with the SARS virus causes acute respiratory distress (severe breathing difficulty) and sometimes death.


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You probably know that smoking tobacco isn’t great for your health. A recent report by the U.S. surgeon general attributes nearly half a million deaths annually to smoking. Your lungs are one of the organs that’s most impacted by tobacco. Here’s how smoking affects your lungs and your overall health.


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HRT, also known as hormone therapy (HT) or menopausal hormone therapy (MHT), is medication containing the hormones that a woman’s body stops producing after menopause. HRT is used to treat menopausal symptoms.

While HRT reduces the likelihood of some debilitating diseases such as osteoporosis, colorectal (bowel) cancer and heart disease, it may increase the chances of developing a blood clot (when given in tablet form) or breast cancer (when some types are used long-term).

‘Premature menopause’ is when the final menstrual period occurs before a woman is 40. ‘Early menopause’ is when the final menstrual period occurs before a woman is 45. For women who experience premature or early menopause, HRT is strongly recommended until the average age of menopause (around 51 years), unless there is a particular reason for a woman not to take it.

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Women frequently ask what symptoms they can anticipate during menopause. In reality, each woman experiences menopause differently. Some women have changes in several areas of their lives. It is not always possible to tell if these changes are related to aging, menopause or both. While one woman is certain that insomnia is a menopause symptom for her, another feels joint aches are her primary menopause symptom. Doctors find it difficult to communicate to their patients about menopause and what could be a host of uncomfortable symptoms. For example, medical science cannot explain how declining hormone levels during menopause could cause joint pain. Menopause is not an illness, but a natural transition when a woman's reproductive ability ends. Yet many of the menopausal symptoms may mimic signs caused by diseases. When do women undergoing menopause need treatment in the first place? The same pattern of hot flashes in two women can have a very different psychological impact. For one woman, they can greatly disturb her daily functioning, while another may hardly be bothered.


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There are six basic types of nutrients that are considered essential to life: proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water. These nutrients are needed for your body to function properly, and your diet is the source of them. Vitamins and minerals are considered micronutrients because they are needed in smaller quantities than the macronutrients (protein, carbohydrates, and fat). Micronutrients do not provide calories. When your body does not absorb an adequate amount of any of the micronutrients, diseases can occur. It's important to understand what your nutritional needs are and how to achieve them.Vitamins are broken down into two categories: water-soluble and fat-soluble. Water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water. Leftover amounts are not stored and will leave your body through your urine. For this reason, you must consume them on a continuous basis. The water-soluble vitamins are the B vitamins and vitamin C. Fat-soluble vitamins dissolve in fat, not water. These vitamins need dietary fat in order to be better absorbed in the small intestines. They are then stored in the liver and fatty tissues (adipose tissues) and can accumulate to toxic levels when consumed in excess quantities. The fat-soluble vitamins are vitamins A, D, E, and K.Recommendations for essential nutrients are provided in the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) developed by the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies. Dietary Reference Intakes is the general term for a set of reference values used for planning and assessing nutrient intake for healthy people. There are three important types of DRI reference values; Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA), Adequate Intakes (AI), and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL). The RDA is set to meet the nutrient requirements for the average daily intake of nearly all healthy individuals in each age and gender group. When there is insufficient data to set an RDA for a nutrient, an AI is set. AIs meet or exceed the amount needed to maintain an adequate nutritional state in nearly everyone of a specific age and gender group. Some nutrients can cause health problems when consumed in excessive quantities. The UL was set to provide the maximum daily intake that is unlikely to result in adverse health effects. Numerous health conditions, however, can impact your nutritional needs. A registered dietitian or physician can help you better determine your needs based upon your overall health and condition.


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You can do a lot to take care of yourself and give your body what it needs. Still, as you get older, your body changes in ways you can’t always control. For most men, one of those changes is that the prostate gets bigger.


It’s a natural part of aging, but at some point, it can lead to a condition called BPH, or benign prostatic hyperplasia.


Your prostate surrounds part of your urethra, the tube that carries urine and semen out of your penis. When you have BPH, your prostate is larger than usual, which squeezes the urethra. This can cause a weak stream when you pee and cause you to wake up a lot at night to go to the bathroom.


BPH isn’t prostate cancer and doesn’t make you more likely to get it.


It’s a common condition, especially in older men, and there are a lot of treatments for it, from lifestyle changes to surgery. Your doctor can help you choose the best care based on your age, health, and how the condition affects you.

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Prostatitis is inflammation of the prostate gland. The inflammation can be due to an infection as well as other various causes. Prostatitis accounts for nearly 2 million visits per year to outpatient urology practices in the United States.

The prostate gland is part of the male reproductive system, and it is a walnut-sized gland found in men that is located below the bladder and in front of the rectum. It surrounds the urethra, the tube through which urine and semen exit the body. Its main function is to produce seminal fluid in order to transport sperm through the urethra.

The NIH consensus definition and classification of prostatitis:

Acute bacterial prostatitis:
Caused by a bacterial infection and it typically starts suddenly and may include flu-like symptoms. It is the least common of the four types of prostatitis.
Chronic bacterial prostatitis:
Characterized by recurrent bacterial infections of the prostate gland. Between attacks the symptoms might be minor or the patient may even be symptom free, however it can be difficult to successfully treat.
Chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome:
Most cases of prostatitis fall into this category, however it is the least understood. It can be further characterized as inflammatory or noninflammatory, depending upon the presence or absence of infection-fighting cells in the urine, semen, and prostatic fluid. Often no specific cause can be identified. The symptoms can come and go or remain chronically.
Asymptomatic inflammatory prostatitis:
This condition is often diagnosed incidentally during the work-up for infertility or prostate cancer. Individuals with this form of prostatitis will not complain of symptoms or discomfort, but they will have the presence of infection-fighting cells present in semen/prostatic fluid.

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Some sexually transmitted infections can spread through the use of unsterilized drug needles, from mother to baby during childbirth, or breast-feeding, and blood transfusions.

Sexually transmitted infections have been around for thousands of years. The genital areas are generally moist and warm environments - ideal for the growth of yeasts, viruses, and bacteria.

Microorganisms that exists on the skin or mucus membranes of the male or female genital area can be transmitted, as can organisms in semen, vaginal secretions, or blood during sexual intercourse.


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A bone density test determines if you have osteoporosis — a disorder characterized by bones that are more fragile and more likely to break.

In the past, osteoporosis would be suspected only after you broke a bone. By that time, however, your bones could be quite weak. A bone density test enhances the accuracy of calculating your risk of breaking bones.

A bone density test uses X-rays to measure how many grams of calcium and other bone minerals are packed into a segment of bone. The bones that are most commonly tested are in the spine, hip and sometimes the forearm.

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Bedwetting, or nocturnal enuresis, refers to the unintentional passage of urine during sleep. Enuresis is the medical term for wetting, whether in the clothing during the day or in bed at night. Another name for enuresis is urinary incontinence.
For infants and young children, urination is involuntary. Wetting is normal for them. Most children achieve some degree of bladder control by 4 years of age. Daytime control is usually achieved first, while nighttime control comes later.

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Cardiomyopathy is a disease of the heart muscle. It affects any age group and is a serious lifelong condition.

Cardiomyopathy means your heart is unable to pump an adequate supply of blood around the body. 

As cardiomyopathy progresses your heart becomes weaker. 

Some types of cardiomyopathy can cause an irregular heart beat, because the heart muscle becomes stretched.

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Sleep disorders are a group of conditions that affect the ability to sleep well on a regular basis. Whether they are caused by a health problem or by too much stress, sleep disorders are becoming increasingly common in the United States. In fact, more than 75 percent of Americans between ages 20 and 59 report having sleeping difficulties fairly regularly.

Most people occasionally experience sleeping problems due to stress, hectic schedules, and other outside influences. However, when these issues begin to occur on a regular basis and interfere with daily life, they may indicate a sleeping disorder.

Depending on the type of sleep disorder, people may have a difficult time falling asleep and may feel extremely tired throughout the day. The lack of sleep can have a negative impact on energy, mood, concentration, and overall health.

In some cases, sleep disorders can be a symptom of another medical or mental health condition. These sleeping problems may eventually go away once treatment is obtained for the underlying cause. When sleep disorders aren’t caused by another condition, treatment normally involves a combination of medical treatments and lifestyle changes.

It’s important to receive a diagnosis and treatment right away if you suspect you might have a sleep disorder. When left untreated, the negative effects of sleep disorders can lead to further health consequences. They can also affect your performance at work, cause strain in relationships, and impair your ability to perform daily activities.

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An actinic keratosis (ak-TIN-ik ker-uh-TOE-sis) is a rough, scaly patch on your skin that develops from years of exposure to the sun. It's most commonly found on your face, lips, ears, back of your hands, forearms, scalp or neck.

Also known as a solar keratosis, an actinic keratosis enlarges slowly and usually causes no signs or symptoms other than a patch or small spot on your skin. These patches take years to develop, usually first appearing in people over 40.

A small percentage of actinic keratosis lesions can eventually become skin cancer. You can reduce your risk of actinic keratoses by minimizing your sun exposure and protecting your skin from ultraviolet (UV) rays.

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Jet lag, also called desynchronosis and flight fatigue, is a temporary disorder that causes fatigue, insomnia, and other symptoms as a result of air travel across time zones. It is considered a circadian rhythm sleep disorder, which is a disruption of the internal body clock.

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Thyroid nodules are solid or fluid-filled lumps that form within your thyroid, a small gland located at the base of your neck, just above your breastbone.

The great majority of thyroid nodules aren't serious and don't cause symptoms. Thyroid cancer accounts for only a small percentage of thyroid nodules.

You often won't know you have a thyroid nodule until your doctor discovers it during a routine medical exam. Some thyroid nodules, however, may become large enough to be visible or make it difficult to swallow or breathe.

Treatment options depend on the type of thyroid nodule you have.

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Cellulite affects about 80% of all women. A poor diet, lack of physical activity, hormone changes, genetics and overall body fat are the main reasons for the ugly dimples. Women typically store this excess fat in the buttocks and hip area. Fortunately, there are many things you can do to get rid of it.

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Cellulitis (sel-u-LIE-tis) is a common, potentially serious bacterial skin infection. Cellulitis appears as a swollen, red area of skin that feels hot and tender. It can spread rapidly to other parts of the body. Cellulitis isn't usually spread from person to person.

Skin on lower legs is most commonly affected, though cellulitis can occur anywhere on your body or face. Cellulitis might affect only your skin's surface. Or it might also affect tissues underlying your skin and can spread to your lymph nodes and bloodstream.

Left untreated, the spreading infection can rapidly turn life-threatening. It's important to seek immediate medical attention if cellulitis symptoms occur.

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Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) refers to the range of physical and emotional symptoms many women experience in the lead up to a period. Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) is a more serious form of PMS. Here you will find information on PMS, PMDD symptoms, causes and treatments.


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When you breathe, you inhale particles that are floating around in the air, like dust, allergens, bacteria or viruses. Usually these particles are trapped in the mucus that covers the mucus membranes of your nose and airways. Then tiny hairs called cilia transport the mucus (with the trapped particles) toward the throat. From there it can either be coughed out (also called “expectorating”) or swallowed.

But sometimes, particles like dust can irritate your mucus membranes or a virus or bacteria can cause an infection. This causes inflammation and results in extra mucus in your airways. This extra mucus is one of the ways your body tries to remove an irritant.

When there’s more (and thicker) mucus in your airways, your body may not be able to get rid of it in the usual ways (i.e. coughing it up or swallowing it). This is why you may start coughing more. Coughing is a way for your body to get rid of irritants in your airways or an accumulation of extra mucus that’s stuck inside your lungs.

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Chest pain. The first thing you may think of is heart attack. Certainly chest pain is not something to ignore. But you should know that it has many possible causes. In fact, as much as a quarter of the U.S. population experiences chest pain that is not related to the heart. Chest pain may also be caused by problems in your lungs, esophagus, muscles, ribs, or nerves, for example. Some of these conditions are serious and life threatening. Others are not. If you have unexplained chest pain, the only way to confirm its cause is to have a doctor evaluate you.

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Angina is a form of chest pain or discomfort as a result of reduced blood supply to heart muscles. This reduced blood supply results in reduced oxygen supply to heart muscles and as a result deficient waste removal from heart muscles leading to chest pain or discomfort. The most usual reason for this is some form of obstruction of coronary arteries due to medical conditions like atherosclerosis which hampers blood supply to heart muscles resulting in ischemia.

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Chronic kidney disease includes conditions that damage your kidneys and decrease their ability to keep you healthy by doing the jobs listed. If kidney disease gets worse, wastes can build to high levels in your blood and make you feel sick. You may develop complications like high blood pressure, anemia (low blood count), weak bones, poor nutritional health and nerve damage. Also, kidney disease increases your risk of having heart and blood vessel disease. These problems may happen slowly over a long period of time. Chronic kidney disease may be caused by diabetes, high blood pressure and other disorders. Early detection and treatment can often keep chronic kidney disease from getting worse. When kidney disease progresses, it may eventually lead to kidney failure, which requires dialysis or a kidney transplant to maintain life.

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Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is a cancer that affects a type of white blood cell called a "lymphocyte."

Lymphocytes help your body fight infection. They're made in the soft center of your bones, called the marrow. If you have CLL, your body makes an abnormally high number of lymphocytes that aren't working right.

More adults get CLL than any other type of leukemia. It usually grows slowly, so you may not have symptoms for years.

Some people never need treatment, but if you do, it can slow the disease and ease symptoms. People who get medical care live longer today, because doctors are diagnosing CLL earlier.

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Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood rich in oxygen throughout your body. They go to your brain as well as to the tips of your toes. Healthy arteries have smooth inner walls and blood flows through them easily. Some people, however, develop clogged arteries. Clogged arteries result from a buildup of a substance called plaque on the inner walls of the arteries. Arterial plaque can reduce blood flow or, in some instances, block it altogether.

Clogged arteries greatly increase the likelihood of heart attack, stroke, and even death. Because of these dangers, it is important to be aware, no matter how old you are, of the causes of artery plaque and treatment strategies to prevent serious consequences.

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